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Volumn 44, Issue 3, 2002, Pages 534-563

The Façade of Legitimacy: Exchange of Power and Authority in Early Modern Russia

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EID: 85012549298     PISSN: 00104175     EISSN: 14752999     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0010417502000257     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (29)

References (173)
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    • Adamson has described the emerging pattern of understanding this way: “At the most ‘absolutist’ of courts, the exercise of authority was always in some sense a negotiation founded, in the final analysis, upon the community of interest between the crown and the noble elites. The court, far from being an instrument whereby monarchs could weaken the nobility, as was once supposed, provided the forum in which that compact could be subjected to a regular process of revision and renegotiation.” ed. John Adamson (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson
    • Adamson has described the emerging pattern of understanding this way: “At the most ‘absolutist’ of courts, the exercise of authority was always in some sense a negotiation founded, in the final analysis, upon the community of interest between the crown and the noble elites. The court, far from being an instrument whereby monarchs could weaken the nobility, as was once supposed, provided the forum in which that compact could be subjected to a regular process of revision and renegotiation.” John Adamson, “The Making of the Ancien-Régime Court 1500–1700,” in The Princely Courts of Europe 1500–1750, ed. John Adamson (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1999), 39.
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    • The Myth of Absolutism
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    • See also Henshall “The Myth of Absolutism,” History Today 42 (June 1992): 40–47. He pointed out that “absolutism” is a term coined in 1823 to apply to the contemporary ruler Ferdinand VII of Spain, and argued that it is an anachronism for us to apply it to earlier centuries.
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    • On the difference between “national states” and “nation-states, ” see Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell
    • On the difference between “national states” and “nation-states,” see Charles Tilly, Coercion, Capital, and European States, AD 990–1992 (Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell, 1992), 2–3.
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    • For a recent restatement of this view of absolutism as a necessary phase, see London: Routledge
    • For a recent restatement of this view of absolutism as a necessary phase, see Christopher Pierson, The Modern State (London: Routledge, 1996), 44–47.
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    • 5th ed. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin 6th ed. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1999). Hill wrote this chapter of the textbook
    • John P. McKay, Bennett D. Hill, and John Buckler, A History of Western Society, 5th ed. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1995); 6th ed. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1999). Hill wrote this chapter of the textbook.
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    • The Tyranny of a Construct: Feudalism and Historians of Medieval Europe
    • argued against the idea that it is perfectly alright to practice one thing in one's research but to teach another to undergraduates (the thinking being that one can correct those who become graduate students when it comes time for them to do their own research). See her
    • Elizabeth A. R. Brown argued against the idea that it is perfectly alright to practice one thing in one's research but to teach another to undergraduates (the thinking being that one can correct those who become graduate students when it comes time for them to do their own research). See her “The Tyranny of a Construct: Feudalism and Historians of Medieval Europe,” American Historical Review 79 (1974): 1070.
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    • Absolutism: What's in a Name?
    • On the issue of whether absolutism necessarily represents centralization of power and administration
    • Richard Bonney, “Absolutism: What's in a Name?” French History 1 (1987): 94. On the issue of whether absolutism necessarily represents centralization of power and administration
    • (1987) French History , vol.1 , pp. 94
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    • The Ruling Class: Tsarist Russia as the Perfect Model
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    • and John P. LeDonne, “The Ruling Class: Tsarist Russia as the Perfect Model,” International Social Science Journal 136 (May 1993): 285–300.
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    • Elementi di Scienza Politica), trans. Hannah D. Kahn, ed. Arthur Livingston (New York: McGraw-Hill
    • Gaetano Mosca, The Ruling Class (Elementi di Scienza Politica), trans. Hannah D. Kahn, ed. Arthur Livingston (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1939).
    • (1939) The Ruling Class
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    • 85012491230 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Chosen by ‘All the Russian People’: The Idea of an Elected Monarchy in Eighteenth-Century Russia
    • Whittaker used the phrase “the deck was reshuffled” specifically in relation to heirs to the throne But it seems an apt
    • Whittaker used the phrase “the deck was reshuffled” specifically in relation to heirs to the throne. Cynthia Hyla Whittaker, “Chosen by ‘All the Russian People’: The Idea of an Elected Monarchy in Eighteenth-Century Russia,” Acta Slavica Iaponica 18 (2001): 9. But it seems an apt
    • (2001) Acta Slavica Iaponica , vol.18 , pp. 9
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    • A Critique of the Ruling Elite Model
    • description for what happened within the ruling class in general. Robert A. Dahl has found what he calls “the ruling elite model” insufficient to help in explaining political systems, from multinational states to city governments. LeDonne makes the point, however, that such criticisms of the ruling class model are based on its insufficiencies in explaining modern industrial societies. Instead, LeDonne found the model perfectly applicable to pre-industrial Russia
    • description for what happened within the ruling class in general. Robert A. Dahl has found what he calls “the ruling elite model” insufficient to help in explaining political systems, from multinational states to city governments.Robert A. Dahl, “A Critique of the Ruling Elite Model,” American Political Science Review 52 (1958): 463–69. LeDonne makes the point, however, that such criticisms of the ruling class model are based on its insufficiencies in explaining modern industrial societies. Instead, LeDonne found the model perfectly applicable to pre-industrial Russia.
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    • trans. Paul Sonnino (New York The characterization of Louis as manifesting “warm sentiments” toward the nobility comes from Sonnino's introduction (Mémoires for the Instruction of the Dauphin., 11)
    • Louis XIV, Mémoires for the Instruction of the Dauphin, trans. Paul Sonnino (New York, 1970). The characterization of Louis as manifesting “warm sentiments” toward the nobility comes from Sonnino's introduction (Mémoires for the Instruction of the Dauphin., 11).
    • (1970) Mémoires for the Instruction of the Dauphin
    • Louis1
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    • Stanford: Stanford University Press The term “façade of autocracy” has been used in a similar, but not necessarily the same, sense as I am using “façade of legitimacy.” See and
    • The term “façade of autocracy” has been used in a similar, but not necessarily the same, sense as I am using “façade of legitimacy.” See Nancy Shields Kollmann, Kinship and Politics: The Making of the Muscovite Political System, 1345–1547 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1987), 146–51; and
    • (1987) Kinship and Politics: The Making of the Muscovite Political System, 1345–1547 , pp. 146-151
    • Shields Kollmann, N.1
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    • The Courts of Moscow and St. Petersburg c. 1547–1725
    • Lindsey Hughes, “The Courts of Moscow and St. Petersburg c. 1547–1725,” in Princely Courts of Europe, 296.
    • Princely Courts of Europe , pp. 296
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    • Muscovite Political Folkways
    • Cf.
    • Cf. Edward L. Keenan, “Muscovite Political Folkways,” Russian Review 45 (1986): 147
    • (1986) Russian Review , vol.45 , pp. 147
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    • Did Muscovite Literary Ideology Place Limits on the Power of the Tsar (1540s “1660s)?
    • where he refers to the “central myth of the political system “that of the all-powerful and divinely appointed tsar.” Rowland uses the term “myth of autocracy” in the same sense as I am using “façade of legitimacy.”
    • where he refers to the “central myth of the political system “that of the all-powerful and divinely appointed tsar.” Rowland uses the term “myth of autocracy” in the same sense as I am using “façade of legitimacy.” Daniel Rowland, “Did Muscovite Literary Ideology Place Limits on the Power of the Tsar (1540s “1660s)?” Russian Review 49 (1990): 152.
    • (1990) Russian Review , vol.49 , pp. 152
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    • 2d ed. (Toronto: Progress Books Even so, when faced with disobedience or protest among the populace, the “absolute” ruler had to decide whether to attempt to crush the resistance or give in to avoid full-scale revolt. When, in 1704, Louis XIV was informed by the governor and intendent at Quebec that “the people of the colony were so profoundly opposed to such a tax [the taille] that open rebellion would inevitably follow,” Louis rescinded his declared intention to extend it there. See Likewise, in 1666, Louis reduced the number of saints' days so as to increase agricultural output, but took no action when the peasants continued to celebrate those days
    • Even so, when faced with disobedience or protest among the populace, the “absolute” ruler had to decide whether to attempt to crush the resistance or give in to avoid full-scale revolt. When, in 1704, Louis XIV was informed by the governor and intendent at Quebec that “the people of the colony were so profoundly opposed to such a tax [the taille] that open rebellion would inevitably follow,” Louis rescinded his declared intention to extend it there. See Stanley B. Ryerson, The Founding of Canada: Beginnings to 1815, 2d ed. (Toronto: Progress Books, 1963), 127. Likewise, in 1666, Louis reduced the number of saints' days so as to increase agricultural output, but took no action when the peasants continued to celebrate those days.
    • (1963) The Founding of Canada: Beginnings to 1815 , pp. 127
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    • London: Eyre and Spottiswoode Similarly, in 1648, when the Muscovite populace threatened to revolt over widespread governmental corruption, Tsar Aleksei made sweeping changes in the government and convoked an Assembly of the Land that resulted in the promulgation of a new law code
    • W. H. Lewis, The Splendid Century (London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1953), 71–72. Similarly, in 1648, when the Muscovite populace threatened to revolt over widespread governmental corruption, Tsar Aleksei made sweeping changes in the government and convoked an Assembly of the Land that resulted in the promulgation of a new law code.
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    • The Devil Stole His Mind: The Tsar and the 1648 Moscow Uprising
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    • See Valerie Kivelson, “The Devil Stole His Mind: The Tsar and the 1648 Moscow Uprising,” American Historical Review 98 (1993): 733–756.
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    • What Did Russians Mean When They Called Themselves “Slaves of the Tsar'?
    • For an illuminating article on such declarations of abject servility by Muscovite boyars, see For further examples
    • For an illuminating article on such declarations of abject servility by Muscovite boyars, see Marshall Poe, “What Did Russians Mean When They Called Themselves “Slaves of the Tsar'?” Slavic Review 57 (1998): 585–608. For further examples
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    • Concepts of Society and Social Identity in Early Modern Russia
    • see ed. Samuel H. Baron and Nancy Shields Kollmann (DeKalb, Ill.: Northern Illinois University Press
    • see Nancy Shields Kollmann, “Concepts of Society and Social Identity in Early Modern Russia,” in Religion and Culture in Early Modern Russia and Ukraine, ed. Samuel H. Baron and Nancy Shields Kollmann (DeKalb, Ill.: Northern Illinois University Press, 1997), 35–36.
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    • Muscovite Adaptation of Steppe Political Institutions: AReply to Halperin's Objections
    • For a discussion of these points with accompanying citation of evidence, see
    • For a discussion of these points with accompanying citation of evidence, see Donald Ostrowski, “Muscovite Adaptation of Steppe Political Institutions: AReply to Halperin's Objections,” Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 1 (2000): 268 - 289;
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    • The Assembly of the Land (Zemskii sobor) as a Representative Institution
    • ed. Jarmo Kotilaine and Marshall Poe (forthcoming). On the history of the Assembly of the Land
    • and idem, “The Assembly of the Land (Zemskii sobor) as a Representative Institution,” in Modernizing Muscovy: Reform and Social Change in Seventeenth-Century Russia, ed. Jarmo Kotilaine and Marshall Poe (forthcoming). On the history of the Assembly of the Land
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    • see Peter B. Brown, “The Zemskii Sobor in Recent Soviet Historiography,” Russian History 10 (1983): 77–90;
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    • Stanford: Stanford University Press The local official could, however, “kick” the decision upstairs by requesting a determination from Moscow or, later, from St. Petersburg, if he so desired
    • Valerie Kivelson, Autocracy in the Provinces: The Muscovite Gentry and Political Culture in the Seventeenth Century (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996), 129–30. The local official could, however, “kick” the decision upstairs by requesting a determination from Moscow or, later, from St. Petersburg, if he so desired.
    • (1996) Autocracy in the Provinces: The Muscovite Gentry and Political Culture in the Seventeenth Century , pp. 129-130
    • Kivelson, V.1
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    • According to Kivelson, some gentry after 1650 began asking for more central government involvement, especially in returning runaway serfs, in contrast to before 1650 when those same gentry resisted such involvement
    • Kivelson, Autocracy in the Provinces, 268. According to Kivelson, some gentry after 1650 began asking for more central government involvement, especially in returning runaway serfs, in contrast to before 1650 when those same gentry resisted such involvement.
    • Autocracy in the Provinces , pp. 268
    • Kivelson1
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    • The Valois and Bourboun Courts c. 1515–1750
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    • Henshall describes the importance in France during the seventeenth century of these formal local consultative bodies
    • Henshall describes the importance in France during the seventeenth century of these formal local consultative bodies. Henshall, Myth, 180.
    • Myth , pp. 180
    • Henshall1
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    • On this point, see New Haven: Yale University Press
    • On this point, see Kevin Sharpe, The Personal Rule of Charles I (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992), 202, 205, 262–64.
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    • Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Kettering agrees with Beik that Louis XIV achieved the cooperation of the nobility but differs from him in how it was achieved. She believes Louis secured elite collaboration through seriously weakening “if not entirely destroy[ing] the provincial power bases of [his] most formidable rivals, the great nobles
    • William Beik, Absolutism and Society in Seventeenth-Century France: State Power and Provincial Aristocracy in Languedoc (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 3–4, 279- 328. Kettering agrees with Beik that Louis XIV achieved the cooperation of the nobility but differs from him in how it was achieved. She believes Louis secured elite collaboration through seriously weakening “if not entirely destroy[ing] the provincial power bases of [his] most formidable rivals, the great nobles.
    • (1985) Absolutism and Society in Seventeenth-Century France: State Power and Provincial Aristocracy in Languedoc
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    • Beik claims Louis achieved it through “reinforc[ing] class rule” and in strengthening the provincial power bases of his allies, the nobles
    • Beik claims Louis achieved it through “reinforc[ing] class rule” (Beik, Absolutism, 333) and in strengthening the provincial power bases of his allies, the nobles.
    • Absolutism , pp. 333
    • Beik1
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    • Kettering describes the relations between patrons, brokers, and clients in early modern France as transitional phenomenon connected with the centralization of governmental power. Instead, I suggest that these relations are a characteristic phenomenon of early modern states, not just a transitional phenomenon to something else
    • Kettering describes the relations between patrons, brokers, and clients in early modern France as transitional phenomenon connected with the centralization of governmental power. Kettering, Patrons, Brokers and Clients in Seventeenth-Century France, 5. Instead, I suggest that these relations are a characteristic phenomenon of early modern states, not just a transitional phenomenon to something else.
    • Patrons, Brokers and Clients in Seventeenth-Century France , pp. 5
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    • Sostav oprichnogo dvora Ivan Groznogo
    • For a comparison of their respective social compositions, see Moscow
    • For a comparison of their respective social compositions, see V. B. Kobrin, “Sostav oprichnogo dvora Ivan Groznogo,” Arkheograficheskii ezhegodnik za 1959 god (Moscow, 1960): 16–91;
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    • Political Poruka in Muscovite Rus'
    • Horace Dewey discussed aspects of the patronage networks in regard to joint surety documents in sixteenth-century Muscovy
    • Horace Dewey discussed aspects of the patronage networks in regard to joint surety documents in sixteenth-century Muscovy. Horace Dewey, “Political Poruka in Muscovite Rus',” Russian Review 46 (1987): 117–133.
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    • For a discussion of aspects of patronage and collective guilt in regard to the Oprichnina of Ivan I V, see Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
    • For a discussion of aspects of patronage and collective guilt in regard to the Oprichnina of Ivan I V, see Donald Ostrowski, Muscovy and the Mongols: Cross-Cultural Influences on the Steppe Frontier, 1304–1589 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 191–97.
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    • Paris: Editions Garnier freres ed. Gonzague Truc book 2, ch. 4
    • [Charles Louis de Secondat] Montesquieu, De l'Esprit des lois, ed. Gonzague Truc, 2 vols. (Paris: Editions Garnier freres, 1961–1962), book 2, ch. 4, 19–22.
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    • Moscow: Izdatel'stvo sotsial'no-ekonomicheskoi literatury Kliuchevskii sees the division as being between the higher and lower boyars
    • V. O. Kliuchevskii, Sochineniia, 8 vols. (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo sotsial'no-ekonomicheskoi literatury, 1958), 3: 39–40. Kliuchevskii sees the division as being between the higher and lower boyars.
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    • Gustav Adolf's Accession Charter, 31 December 1611
    • Society, Foreign Policy, ed. Michael Roberts (London: Edward Arnold
    • “Gustav Adolf's Accession Charter, 31 December 1611,” in Sweden as a Great Power 1611- 1697: Government, Society, Foreign Policy, ed. Michael Roberts (London: Edward Arnold, 1968), 7–10.
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    • Cf 2d ed., (London: Longman
    • Cf. Michael Roberts, Gustavus Adolphus, 2d ed., (London: Longman, 1992), 23;
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    • Cambridge: Cambridge University Press In contrast, Elizabeth I of England rarely attended Council meetings but kept herself well informed concerning what was discussed at those meetings
    • Michael Roberts, From Oxenstierna to Charles XII: Four Studies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 56–57. In contrast, Elizabeth I of England rarely attended Council meetings but kept herself well informed concerning what was discussed at those meetings.
    • (1991) From Oxenstierna to Charles XII: Four Studies , pp. 56-57
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    • Absolutism and the New Men of Seventeenth-Century Russia
    • idem ed. Jarmo Kotilaine and Marshall T. Poe (forthcoming
    • idem, “Absolutism and the New Men of Seventeenth-Century Russia,” in Modernizing Muscovy: Reform and Social Change in Seventeenth-Century Russia, ed. Jarmo Kotilaine and Marshall T. Poe (forthcoming).
    • Modernizing Muscovy: Reform and Social Change in Seventeenth-Century Russia
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    • ed. N. I. Pavlenko, L. A. Nikiforov, and M. Ia. Volkov (Moscow: Nauka
    • M. D. Rabinovich, “Sotsial'noe proiskhozhdenie i imushchestvennoe polozhenie ofitserov reguliarnoi russkoi armii v kontse Severnoi voiny,” in Rossiia v period reform Petra I, ed. N. I. Pavlenko, L. A. Nikiforov, and M. Ia. Volkov (Moscow: Nauka, 1973), 141–42;
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    • Peter and the Boiar Aristocracy, 1689–1700
    • Crummey traces back to the writings of F. A. Kurakin the notion that Peter was anti-aristocratic
    • Crummey traces back to the writings of F. A. Kurakin the notion that Peter was anti-aristocratic. Robert O. Crummey, “Peter and the Boiar Aristocracy, 1689–1700,” Canadian-American Slavic Studies 8 (1974): 274–275.
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    • See St. Petersburg: V. S. Bala-shev
    • See Arkhiv kniazia F. A. Kurakina, 10 vols. (St. Petersburg: V. S. Bala-shev, 1890–1902), 1: 63–64.
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    • St. Petersburg 1st series no. 3890 (24 Jan. 1722
    • Polnoe sobranie zakonov Rossiiskoi Imperii s 1649 (PSZ), 1st series, 45 vols. (St. Petersburg, 1830), 6: 486, no. 3890 (24 Jan. 1722).
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    • ed. and trans. A. Lentin (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press In pre-Petrine Muscovy, promotions were determined primarily on the basis of birth and service. Kivelson, Autocracy in the Provinces, 41. Despite the stipulation of promotion by seniority in the Table of Ranks, we still find birth and, on occasion, merit being used as criteria for promotion in post-Petrine Russia
    • M. M. Shcherbatov, On the Corruption of Morals in Russia, ed. and trans. A. Lentin (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969), 152–53. In pre-Petrine Muscovy, promotions were determined primarily on the basis of birth and service. Kivelson, Autocracy in the Provinces, 41. Despite the stipulation of promotion by seniority in the Table of Ranks, we still find birth and, on occasion, merit being used as criteria for promotion in post-Petrine Russia.
    • (1969) On the Corruption of Morals in Russia , pp. 152-153
    • Shcherbatov, M.M.1
  • 79
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    • Ruling Families in the Russian Political Order 1689–1825
    • John P. LeDonne, “Ruling Families in the Russian Political Order 1689–1825,” Cahiers du Monde russe et soviètique 28 (1987): 233–322.
    • (1987) Cahiers du Monde russe et soviètique , vol.28 , pp. 233-322
    • LeDonne, J.P.1
  • 80
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    • Zapiski Andreia Artamono-vicha grafa Matveeva
    • According to A. A. Matveev, the son of A. S. Matveev who was killed in the subsequent uprising, the Miloslavskiis instigated the opposition. ed. I. P. Sakharov (St. Petersburg: Sakharov
    • According to A. A. Matveev, the son of A. S. Matveev who was killed in the subsequent uprising, the Miloslavskiis instigated the opposition. [A. A. Matveev] “Zapiski Andreia Artamono-vicha grafa Matveeva,” Zapiski russkikh liudei. Sobytiia vremen Petra Velikogo, ed. I. P. Sakharov (St. Petersburg: Sakharov, 1841), 12–14, 18–19.
    • (1841) Zapiski russkikh liudei. Sobytiia vremen Petra Velikogo
    • Matveev, A.A.1
  • 81
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    • Lindsey Hughes argues that the uprising “was a continuation of the trouble immediately preceding Fedor's death” and was aggravated by the “[t]actless behaviour on the part of the Naryshkins.” Thus, according to Hughes, it occurred independent of any instigation on the part of the Miloslavskiis or of Sophia herself New Haven: Yale University Press
    • Lindsey Hughes argues that the uprising “was a continuation of the trouble immediately preceding Fedor's death” and was aggravated by the “[t]actless behaviour on the part of the Naryshkins.” Thus, according to Hughes, it occurred independent of any instigation on the part of the Miloslavskiis or of Sophia herself. Lindsey Hughes, Sophia, Regent of Russia 1657–1704 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990), 58–62.
    • (1990) Sophia, Regent of Russia 1657–1704 , pp. 58-62
    • Hughes, L.1
  • 82
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    • The Mi-loslavskiis did manage to link strel'tsi dissatisfaction toward certain of their commanders, such as Prince Iu. A. Dolgorukii and Prince G. G. Romodanovskii, with opposition to the Naryshkins. Nonetheless, the deaths of these commanders seems to have resulted more from their own poor leadership characteristics than from any alliance with the Naryshkins. See
    • The Mi-loslavskiis did manage to link strel'tsi dissatisfaction toward certain of their commanders, such as Prince Iu. A. Dolgorukii and Prince G. G. Romodanovskii, with opposition to the Naryshkins. Nonetheless, the deaths of these commanders seems to have resulted more from their own poor leadership characteristics than from any alliance with the Naryshkins. See Crummey, Aristocrats and Servitors, 92–93.
    • Aristocrats and Servitors , pp. 92-93
    • Crummey1
  • 83
    • 85012539665 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Similarly, by 1734, the Trubetskois replaced the Naryshkins as the core of the rival network
    • Similarly, by 1734, the Trubetskois replaced the Naryshkins as the core of the rival network. LeDonne “Ruling Families,” 297–99.
    • “Ruling Families,” , pp. 297-299
    • LeDonne1
  • 84
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    • The Reforming Tsar: The Redefinition of Autocratic Duty in Eighteenth-Century Russia
    • For relevant literature, see fn
    • For relevant literature, see Cynthia Whittaker, “The Reforming Tsar: The Redefinition of Autocratic Duty in Eighteenth-Century Russia,” Slavic Review 51 (1992): 87 fn. 44.
    • (1992) Slavic Review , vol.51 , Issue.87 , pp. 44
    • Whittaker, C.1
  • 85
    • 79957304185 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Whittaker argues that the members of the Supreme Privy Council were sincerely concerned because Anna's predecessors on the throne'Catherine I and Peter II'had been weak rulers, but that the rest of the elite were not convinced of the Council members' sincerity
    • Whittaker argues that the members of the Supreme Privy Council were sincerely concerned because Anna's predecessors on the throne'Catherine I and Peter II'had been weak rulers, but that the rest of the elite were not convinced of the Council members' sincerity. Slavic Review.: 87.
    • Slavic Review , pp. 87
  • 86
    • 0003885372 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • New York: Charles Scribner's Sons Richard Pipes, for example, described this as one of only three attempts, all of which failed, “on the part of the service élite to stand up to the monarchy and restrain its unlimited power.” The other two are the stipulations to Wladyslaw, the son of the Polish king Sigismund III, to become tsar in 1610 and the Decembrists Revolt in 1825. Raeff asserted that the failure of the nobility to impose the “Conditions” meant that Anna “assumed complete autocratic power” and that “her reign may be considered among the most tyrannical and arbitrary of the eighteenth century.”
    • Richard Pipes, for example, described this as one of only three attempts, all of which failed, “on the part of the service élite to stand up to the monarchy and restrain its unlimited power.” Richard Pipes, Russia Under the Old Regime (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1974), 184. The other two are the stipulations to Wladyslaw, the son of the Polish king Sigismund III, to become tsar in 1610 and the Decembrists Revolt in 1825. Raeff asserted that the failure of the nobility to impose the “Conditions” meant that Anna “assumed complete autocratic power” and that “her reign may be considered among the most tyrannical and arbitrary of the eighteenth century.”
    • (1974) Russia Under the Old Regime , pp. 184
    • Pipes, R.1
  • 90
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    • Grigorii Karpovich Kotoshikhin, On Russia in the Reign of Alexis Mikhailovich: An Annotated Translation
    • For relevant secondary literature regarding Kotoshikhin's statement, see Columbia University
    • For relevant secondary literature regarding Kotoshikhin's statement, see Benjamin Phillip Uroff, “Grigorii Karpovich Kotoshikhin, On Russia in the Reign of Alexis Mikhailovich: An Annotated Translation,” Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1970, pp. 553–55.
    • (1970) Ph.D. dissertation , pp. 553-555
    • Phillip Uroff, B.1
  • 93
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    • The Florentine diplomat Lorenzo Magalotti made a similar complaint in 1674 about the Swedish constitution, that is, the Council used its position “to hinder access to the king's person [till honom]….” trans. Carl Magnus Stenbock (Stockholm: P. A. Norstedt & Soner
    • The Florentine diplomat Lorenzo Magalotti made a similar complaint in 1674 about the Swedish constitution, that is, the Council used its position “to hinder access to the king's person [till honom]….” Lorenzo Ma-galotti, Sverige under ˚r 1674, trans. Carl Magnus Stenbock (Stockholm: P. A. Norstedt & Soner, 1912), 2.
    • (1912) Sverige under ˚r 1674 , pp. 2
    • Ma-galotti, L.1
  • 94
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    • Raeff, Plans, 46–50.
    • Plans , pp. 46-50
    • Raeff1
  • 95
    • 79954221715 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Kinship Politics/Autocratic Politics: A Reconsideration of Early-Eighteenth'Century Political Culture
    • See also ed. Jane L. Burbank and David L. Ransel (Bloomington: Indiana University Press
    • See also Valerie A. Kivelson, “Kinship Politics/Autocratic Politics: A Reconsideration of Early-Eighteenth'Century Political Culture,” in Imperial Russia: New Histories for the Empire, ed. Jane L. Burbank and David L. Ransel (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998), 17.
    • (1998) Imperial Russia: New Histories for the Empire , pp. 17
    • Kivelson, V.A.1
  • 96
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    • Verkhovnyi tainyi sovet i ego proekty 1730 goda
    • G. A. Protasov, “Verkhovnyi tainyi sovet i ego proekty 1730 goda,” Istoricheskie raboty 1 (1970): 69–81.
    • (1970) Istoricheskie raboty , vol.1 , pp. 69-81
    • Protasov, G.A.1
  • 97
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    • The Government Crisis of 1730
    • See also ed. Robert O. Crummey (Urbana: University of Illinois Press
    • See also David L. Ransel, “The Government Crisis of 1730,” in Reform in Russia and the U.S.S.R.: Pasts and Prospects, ed. Robert O. Crummey (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989), 50–51.
    • (1989) Reform in Russia and the U.S.S.R.: Pasts and Prospects , pp. 50-51
    • Ransel, D.L.1
  • 98
    • 85012437741 scopus 로고
    • because he married a Roman Catholic, was forced, among other things, to imitate a hen
    • Mina Curtiss For example New York: Frederick Ungar
    • For example, Prince Mikhail Golitsyn, because he married a Roman Catholic, was forced, among other things, to imitate a hen. Mina Curtiss, A Forgotten Empress: Anna Ivanovna and Her Era 1730–1740 (New York: Frederick Ungar, 1973), 183–84.
    • (1973) A Forgotten Empress: Anna Ivanovna and Her Era 1730–1740 , pp. 183-184
    • Mikhail Golitsyn, P.1
  • 99
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    • A Re-Examination of the ‘Dark Era’ of Anna Ioannovna
    • Alexander Lipski, “A Re-Examination of the ‘Dark Era’ of Anna Ioannovna,” American Slavic and East European Review 15 (1956): 477–488.
    • (1956) American Slavic and East European Review , vol.15 , pp. 477-488
    • Lipski, A.1
  • 101
    • 85012565834 scopus 로고
    • ed. A. N. Pynin St. Petersburg: Imperatorskaia akademiia nauk
    • Catherine II, Sochinenie Imperatritsy Ekateriny II, ed. A. N. Pynin, 12 vols. (St. Petersburg: Imperatorskaia akademiia nauk, 1901–1907), 12: 529.
    • (1901) Sochinenie Imperatritsy Ekateriny II , vol.12 , Issue.12 , pp. 529
    • Catherine1
  • 102
    • 85012502640 scopus 로고
    • New Haven: Yale University Press For an attempt to identify political coalitions in seventeenth-century Muscovy
    • David L. Ransel, The Politics of Catherinian Russia (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1975), 1. For an attempt to identify political coalitions in seventeenth-century Muscovy
    • (1975) The Politics of Catherinian Russia , pp. 1
    • Ransel, D.L.1
  • 103
    • 85012549182 scopus 로고
    • Court Groupings and Politics in Russia, 1645–1649
    • see
    • see Robert O. Crummey, “Court Groupings and Politics in Russia, 1645–1649,” Forschungen zur osteu-ropäischen Geschichte 24 (1978): 203–221.
    • (1978) Forschungen zur osteu-ropäischen Geschichte , vol.24 , pp. 203-221
    • Crummey, R.O.1
  • 104
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    • Bureaucracy and Patronage: The View from an Eighteenth-Century Russian Letter-Writer
    • For a description of the kinds of favors clients requested of their patrons, such as job appointments and transfers, loans and cancellation of debts, and intervention in judicial cases, see Ransel's analysis of an eighteenth-century form-letter book in his article ed. Frederic Cople Jaher (Urbana: University of Illinois Press
    • For a description of the kinds of favors clients requested of their patrons, such as job appointments and transfers, loans and cancellation of debts, and intervention in judicial cases, see Ransel's analysis of an eighteenth-century form-letter book in his article “Bureaucracy and Patronage: The View from an Eighteenth-Century Russian Letter-Writer,” in The Rich, the Well Born and the Powerful: Elites and Upper Classes in History, ed. Frederic Cople Jaher (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1973), 167–78.
    • (1973) The Rich, the Well Born and the Powerful: Elites and Upper Classes in History , pp. 167-178
  • 107
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    • 4th ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press
    • Nicholas Riasanovsky, A History of Russia, 4th ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984), 256.
    • (1984) A History of Russia , pp. 256
    • Riasanovsky, N.1
  • 109
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    • Catherine II: The Republican Empress
    • See also
    • See also David Griffiths, “Catherine II: The Republican Empress,” Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas 21 (1973): 323–344.
    • (1973) Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas , vol.21 , pp. 323-344
    • Griffiths, D.1
  • 110
    • 85012530599 scopus 로고
    • art 1785, Catherine granted the nobility their estates outright, so that they no longer held their property solely on the basis of the ruler's favor. Charter to the Nobility On Catherine's educational reforms, see “A noble will not be deprived of his property without due process of law.” This measure had been foreshadowed by the decree of 28 June 1782, in which the state abandoned claim to ownership of mineral wealth, which from then on belonged to the proprietor of the land. PSZ 21: 614, no. 15,447, art. 1
    • On Catherine's educational reforms, see Madariaga, Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great, 490–502. In 1785, Catherine granted the nobility their estates outright, so that they no longer held their property solely on the basis of the ruler's favor. Charter to the Nobility (1785), art. 11: “A noble will not be deprived of his property without due process of law.” This measure had been foreshadowed by the decree of 28 June 1782, in which the state abandoned claim to ownership of mineral wealth, which from then on belonged to the proprietor of the land. PSZ 21: 614, no. 15,447, art. 1.
    • (1785) Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great, 490–502 , pp. 11
    • Madariaga1
  • 111
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    • the tsare-vich's tutor. Mémoires de la Princesse Daschkoff
    • According to Princess Catherine Dashkova, this was the plan of ed. Pascal Pontremoli ([Paris]: Mercure de France
    • According to Princess Catherine Dashkova, this was the plan of Nikita I. Panin, the tsare-vich's tutor. Mémoires de la Princesse Daschkoff. Dame d'honneur de Catherine II impératrice de toutes les Russies, ed. Pascal Pontremoli ([Paris]: Mercure de France, 1966), 49–51.
    • (1966) Dame d'honneur de Catherine II impératrice de toutes les Russies , pp. 49-51
    • Panin, N.I.1
  • 112
    • 85012428827 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • PSZ 6: 496–97, no. 3893.
    • PSZ , vol.6 , Issue.3893 , pp. 496-497
  • 116
    • 85012560601 scopus 로고
    • St. Petersburg no. 67 (4/15 Oct. 1763). By “subjects” Solms meant those in the court. Catherine had virtually no contact with the peasants
    • Sbornik Imperatorskogo Russkogo istoricheskogo obshchestva (SRIO), 148 vols. (St. Petersburg, 1867–1916), 22: 126, no. 67 (4/15 Oct. 1763). By “subjects” Solms meant those in the court. Catherine had virtually no contact with the peasants.
    • (1867) , vol.148 , Issue.22 , pp. 126
  • 117
    • 85012434534 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g. For the seventeenth century, see Crummey, Aristocrats and Servitors, 65–81, 164–65
    • See, e.g., Kollmann, Kinship and Politics 3, 183. For the seventeenth century, see Crummey, Aristocrats and Servitors, 65–81, 164–65.
    • Kinship and Politics , vol.3 , pp. 183
    • Kollmann1
  • 119
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    • as reprinted in Riga and Leipzig: Eduard Franken
    • as reprinted in Scriptores Rerum Livonicarum, 2 vols. (Riga and Leipzig: Eduard Franken, 1853), 2: 702.
    • (1853) Scriptores Rerum Livonicarum , vol.2 , Issue.2 , pp. 702
  • 121
    • 84902357356 scopus 로고
    • What Happened? How Did He Get Away with It? Ivan Groznyi's Paranoia and the Problem of Institutional Restraints
    • Hellie puts more emphasis on the lack of institutional and social restraints to explain Ivan's behavior, but he also mentions the importance of Ivan's position of legitimacy within the Dani-ilovichi as a consideration esp. 219–24
    • Hellie puts more emphasis on the lack of institutional and social restraints to explain Ivan's behavior, but he also mentions the importance of Ivan's position of legitimacy within the Dani-ilovichi as a consideration. Richard Hellie, “What Happened? How Did He Get Away with It? Ivan Groznyi's Paranoia and the Problem of Institutional Restraints,” Russian History 14 (1987): 19–224, esp. 219–24.
    • (1987) Russian History , vol.14 , pp. 19-224
    • Hellie, R.1
  • 123
    • 85012515974 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 80
    • 80 Catherine II, Sochinenie, 12: 553–554.
    • Sochinenie , vol.12 , pp. 553-554
    • Catherine1
  • 125
    • 85012490909 scopus 로고
    • 28 June For Catherine's manifesto, see Although ostensibly in the Naryshkin camp as a result of her marriage, she had already had a well-known affair with a Saltykov, who it was rumored was the father of her son. If Sergei Saltykov indeed was the father of Paul, then the irony is that, although it would appear the dynasty was being continued through the Naryshkin line, it in fact was continued through the rival Miloslavskii-Saltykov line. My thanks to John LeDonne for this observation
    • For Catherine's manifesto, see PSZ 16: 3–4, no. 11582 (28 June 1762). Although ostensibly in the Naryshkin camp as a result of her marriage, she had already had a well-known affair with a Saltykov, who it was rumored was the father of her son. If Sergei Saltykov indeed was the father of Paul, then the irony is that, although it would appear the dynasty was being continued through the Naryshkin line, it in fact was continued through the rival Miloslavskii-Saltykov line. My thanks to John LeDonne for this observation.
    • (1762) PSZ , vol.16 , Issue.11582 , pp. 3-4
  • 130
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    • From Peter the Great to the Death of Nicholas I (Princeton: Princeton University Press For court rituals in seventeenth-century Muscovy
    • Richard S. Wortman, Scenarios of Power: Myth and Ceremony in Russian Monarchy, vol. 1: From Peter the Great to the Death of Nicholas I (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995), 3–4. For court rituals in seventeenth-century Muscovy
    • (1995) Scenarios of Power: Myth and Ceremony in Russian Monarchy , vol.1 , pp. 3-4
    • Wortman, R.S.1
  • 131
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    • Court Spectacles in Seventeenth-Century Russia: Illusion and Reality
    • see in Essays in Honor of A. A. Zimin, ed. Daniel Clark Waugh (Columbus, Ohio: Slavica
    • see Robert O. Crummey, “Court Spectacles in Seventeenth-Century Russia: Illusion and Reality,” in Essays in Honor of A. A. Zimin, ed. Daniel Clark Waugh (Columbus, Ohio: Slavica, 1985), 130–46.
    • (1985) , pp. 130-146
    • Crummey, R.O.1
  • 132
    • 85012481563 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Crummey concludes that ceremony depicting “the reception of ambassadors [which] presents the Tsar … as senior colleague, representing his people with the help of his leading courtiers …. is the idealized picture that [perhaps] is closest to the real political and social conditions at the Muscovite court, at least in the seventeenth century”
    • Crummey concludes that ceremony depicting “the reception of ambassadors [which] presents the Tsar … as senior colleague, representing his people with the help of his leading courtiers …. is the idealized picture that [perhaps] is closest to the real political and social conditions at the Muscovite court, at least in the seventeenth century” (Essays in Honor of A. A. Zimin., 141).
    • Essays in Honor of A. A. Zimin , pp. 141
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    • The Epiphany Ceremony of the Russian Court in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries
    • Recent research on the Epiphany and Palm Sunday ceremonies in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries has tended to focus on the meaning of the rituals in the relationship between the secular and ecclesiastical leaders. See
    • Recent research on the Epiphany and Palm Sunday ceremonies in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries has tended to focus on the meaning of the rituals in the relationship between the secular and ecclesiastical leaders. See Paul Bushkovitch, “The Epiphany Ceremony of the Russian Court in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries,” Russian Review 49 (1990): 1–17
    • (1990) Russian Review , vol.49 , pp. 1-17
    • Bushkovitch, P.1
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    • Breaking the Code: The Image of the Tsar in the Muscovite Palm Sunday Ritual
    • eds. Michael S. Flier and Daniel Rowland (Berkeley: University of California Press
    • Michael S. Flier, “Breaking the Code: The Image of the Tsar in the Muscovite Palm Sunday Ritual,” in Medieval Russian Culture, vol. 2, eds. Michael S. Flier and Daniel Rowland (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), 213–42;
    • (1994) Medieval Russian Culture , vol.2 , pp. 213-242
    • Flier, M.S.1
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    • The Iconology of Royal Ritual in Sixteenth-Century Muscovy
    • ed. Speros Vryonis, Jr. (New Rochelle, N.Y.: A. D. Caratzas Yet, such ceremonies also confirmed the status of the secular ruler's subjects who participated in them
    • Michael S. Flier, “The Iconology of Royal Ritual in Sixteenth-Century Muscovy,” in Byzantine Studies: Essays on the Slavic World and the Eleventh Century, ed. Speros Vryonis, Jr. (New Rochelle, N.Y.: A. D. Caratzas, 1992), 53 -76. Yet, such ceremonies also confirmed the status of the secular ruler's subjects who participated in them.
    • (1992) Byzantine Studies: Essays on the Slavic World and the Eleventh Century , pp. 53-76
    • Flier, M.S.1
  • 136
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    • Autocracy Tempered by Reform or by Regicide?
    • Raeff has made the point that “an autocrat's individual comportment'especially when it does not conform to the ruling elite's expectations'becomes a crucial factor in the stability and success of the reign.”
    • Raeff has made the point that “an autocrat's individual comportment'especially when it does not conform to the ruling elite's expectations'becomes a crucial factor in the stability and success of the reign.” Marc Raeff, “Autocracy Tempered by Reform or by Regicide?” American Historical Review 98 (1993): 1147.
    • (1993) American Historical Review , vol.98 , pp. 1147
    • Raeff, M.1
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    • The Domestic Policies of Peter III and His Overthrow
    • As Raeff wrote: “ … it is difficult, on balance, to see why Peter's social and economic policies should have resulted in his violent overthrow.”
    • As Raeff wrote: “ … it is difficult, on balance, to see why Peter's social and economic policies should have resulted in his violent overthrow.” Marc Raeff, “The Domestic Policies of Peter III and His Overthrow,” American Historical Review 75 (1970): 1302.
    • (1970) American Historical Review , vol.75 , pp. 1302
    • Raeff, M.1
  • 138
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    • 261. LeDonne argues that this was done because merchants were too successful at producing liquor and “were about to become the major producers in the land, a disquieting prospect to powerful noblemen who were seeking to develop their large estates on a capitalist basis.”
    • PSZ 14: 184–86, no. 10,261. LeDonne argues that this was done because merchants were too successful at producing liquor and “were about to become the major producers in the land, a disquieting prospect to powerful noblemen who were seeking to develop their large estates on a capitalist basis.”
    • PSZ , vol.14 , Issue.10 , pp. 184-186
  • 139
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    • Indirect Taxes in Catherine's Russia: II. The Liquor Monopoly
    • John P. LeDonne, “Indirect Taxes in Catherine's Russia: II. The Liquor Monopoly,” Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas 24 (1976): 174.
    • (1976) Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas , vol.24 , pp. 174
    • LeDonne, J.P.1
  • 140
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    • As a result, the only competition the Russian nobility faced in this regard was alcohol manufactured abroad, which may have been behind Shcherbatov's complaint about the importation of “English beer.”
    • As a result, the only competition the Russian nobility faced in this regard was alcohol manufactured abroad, which may have been behind Shcherbatov's complaint about the importation of “English beer.” Shcherbatov, On the Corruption of Morals, 222–25.
    • On the Corruption of Morals , pp. 222-225
    • Shcherbatov1
  • 141
    • 85012431415 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 444 (18 Feb. 1762)
    • PSZ 15: 912–15, no. 11,444 (18 Feb. 1762).
    • PSZ , vol.15 , Issue.11 , pp. 912-915
  • 142
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    • Ekateriny II kak pisatel'nitsa
    • Zaria June
    • “Ekateriny II kak pisatel'nitsa,” Zaria. Zhurnal uzheno-literaturnyi politicheskoi, June 1870: 7.
    • (1870) Zhurnal uzheno-literaturnyi politicheskoi , pp. 7
  • 143
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    • The Burden of Defense in Imperial Russia 1725–1914
    • Pintner estimated the number of male nobles in the mid-eighteenth century to be around 59,000. Troitskii put the number of nobles in civilian service in 1755 at 1,160.
    • Walter Pintner, “The Burden of Defense in Imperial Russia 1725–1914,” Russian Review 43 (1984): 256. Pintner estimated the number of male nobles in the mid-eighteenth century to be around 59,000. Troitskii put the number of nobles in civilian service in 1755 at 1,160.
    • (1984) Russian Review , vol.43 , pp. 256
    • Pintner, W.1
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    • But see Leonard who estimates the percentage of nobles in combined military and civilian service in the mid-eighteenth century to be “up to 60 percent.” Bloomington: Indiana University Press
    • But see Leonard who estimates the percentage of nobles in combined military and civilian service in the mid-eighteenth century to be “up to 60 percent.” Carol Leonard, Reform and Regicide: The Reign of Peter III of Russia (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993), 67.
    • (1993) Reform and Regicide: The Reign of Peter III of Russia , pp. 67
    • Leonard, C.1
  • 149
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    • ‘Ob intensivnosti obrochnoi ekspluatatsii krest'ian tsentral'noi Rossii v kontse XVIII’ pervoi polovine XIX v
    • For the provinces of Moscow, Orel', Riazan', and Tver' in the late eighteenth century, the average obrok payment as percentage of peasant income was 19.4 percent
    • For the provinces of Moscow, Orel', Riazan', and Tver' in the late eighteenth century, the average obrok payment as percentage of peasant income was 19.4 percent. I. D. Koval'chenko and L. V. Miller, ‘Ob intensivnosti obrochnoi ekspluatatsii krest'ian tsentral'noi Rossii v kontse XVIII’ pervoi polovine XIX v., Istoriia SSSR, no. 4 (1966): 67.
    • (1966) Istoriia SSSR , Issue.4 , pp. 67
    • Koval'chenko, I.D.1    Miller, L.V.2
  • 150
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    • Yield Ratios, 810–1820
    • For a general discussion of the economic importance of yield ratios, see A.A.G. Bijdragen
    • For a general discussion of the economic importance of yield ratios, see B. H. Slicher von Bath, “Yield Ratios, 810–1820,” in Afdeling Agrarische Geschiedenis Landbouwhogeschool, A.A.G. Bijdragen, no. 10, 1963, pp. 12–19.
    • (1963) Afdeling Agrarische Geschiedenis Landbouwhogeschool , Issue.10 , pp. 12-19
    • Slicher von Bath, B.H.1
  • 151
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    • Slicher von Bath gathered data on yield ratios of grains and vegetables for various European countries including Russia up to the early nineteenth century A.A.G. Bijdragen
    • Slicher von Bath gathered data on yield ratios of grains and vegetables for various European countries including Russia up to the early nineteenth century. Afdeling Agrarische Geschiedenis Landbouwhogeschool, A.A.G. Bijdragen., 29–260.
    • Afdeling Agrarische Geschiedenis Landbouwhogeschool , pp. 29-260
  • 156
    • 84923366547 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • If one considers only the hereditary nobility, then one obtains an even lower percentage of the male nobility in relationship to the male population as a whole: 0.43 percent in 1762 and 0.41 percent in 1795
    • Leonard, Reform and Regicide, 66. If one considers only the hereditary nobility, then one obtains an even lower percentage of the male nobility in relationship to the male population as a whole: 0.43 percent in 1762 and 0.41 percent in 1795.
    • Reform and Regicide , pp. 66
    • Leonard1
  • 158
    • 6144267273 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Crummey noted, for example, that he came across no case of a boyar family's falling into bankruptcy during the period of his study (1613–1689)
    • Crummey noted, for example, that he came across no case of a boyar family's falling into bankruptcy during the period of his study (1613–1689). Crummey, Aristocrats and Servitors, 167.
    • Aristocrats and Servitors , pp. 167
    • Crummey1
  • 161
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    • Berkeley: University of California Press
    • R. P. Dore, Education in Tokugawa Japan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1965), 41–42.
    • (1965) Education in Tokugawa Japan , pp. 41-42
    • Dore, R.P.1
  • 163
    • 52849137060 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For a description of “bureaucratic absolutism,” see
    • For a description of “bureaucratic absolutism,” see Raeff, Michael Speransky, 35–36.
    • Michael Speransky , pp. 35-36
    • Raeff1
  • 167
    • 85012530391 scopus 로고
    • St. Petersburg, Petrograd, Leningrad, and Moscow 29: 342
    • Polnoe sobranie russkikh letopisei (PSRL), 40 vols. (St. Petersburg, Petrograd, Leningrad, and Moscow, 1841–1995), 13: 392; 29: 342.
    • (1841) , vol.40 , Issue.13 , pp. 392
  • 169
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    • Pis'mo V. S. Popova imperatoru Aleksandru ob imperatritse Ekaterine II i ee pravitel'stven-nykh priemakh
    • in N. K. Shil'der 2d ed. (St. Petersburg: A. S. Suvorin
    • “Pis'mo V. S. Popova imperatoru Aleksandru ob imperatritse Ekaterine II i ee pravitel'stven-nykh priemakh,” in N. K. Shil'der, Imperator Aleksandr Pervyi. Ego zhizn'i tsarstvovanie, 4 vols., 2d ed. (St. Petersburg: A. S. Suvorin, 1904–1905), 1: 280
    • (1904) Imperator Aleksandr Pervyi. Ego zhizn'i tsarstvovanie , vol.4 , Issue.1 , pp. 280
  • 170
  • 171
    • 0012220277 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Louis XIV seems to have had a similar understanding of his “unlimited power.” He advises his oldest son to hear reports “on all the sides and on all the conflicting arguments” before making any important decision
    • Louis XIV seems to have had a similar understanding of his “unlimited power.” He advises his oldest son to hear reports “on all the sides and on all the conflicting arguments” before making any important decision. Louis XIV, Mémoires for the Instruction of the Dauphin, 38.
    • Mémoires for the Instruction of the Dauphin , pp. 38
    • Louis1
  • 173
    • 85012480107 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 949, art. 34: “The Equality of the Citizens consists in this: that they should all be subject to the same laws.”
    • PSZ 18: 196, no. 12,949, art. 34: “The Equality of the Citizens consists in this: that they should all be subject to the same laws.”
    • PSZ , vol.18 , Issue.12 , pp. 196


* 이 정보는 Elsevier사의 SCOPUS DB에서 KISTI가 분석하여 추출한 것입니다.