The diachronic analysis of pastoralism through comparative variables

Annual of the British School at Athens

Volumn 96, Issue 3, 2001, Pages 395-424

  Nixon, Lucia ^a   Price, Simon ^b  

^a MAGDALEN COLLEGE   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 85012524961     PISSN: 00682454     EISSN: 20452403     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0068245400005359     Document Type: Article

References (108)

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2. S. Xanthoudidis, The Vaulted Tombs of Mesara, transl. J. P. Droop (London, 1924); H. Blitzer, ‘Pastoral life in the mountains of Crete’, Expedition, 32. 3 (1990), 34-41 C. Chang, ‘Archaeological landscapes: the ethnoarchaeology of pastoral land use in the Grevena province of Greece’, in J. Rossignol and L. Wandsnider (eds), Space, Time and Archaeological Landscapes (New York and London, 1992), 65-89 10.1007/978-1-4899-2450-6_4 Chang and Tourtellotte.
3. Spain: O. H. Creighton, and J. R. Segui, ‘The ethnoarchaeology of abandonment and post-abandonment behaviour in pastoral sites: evidence from Famorca, Alacant Province, Spain’, Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology, 11 (1998), 31-52 10.1558/jmea.v11i1.31. Italy: G. Barker and A. Grant (eds), ‘Ancient and modern pastoralism in central Italy: an interdisciplinary study in the Cicolano mountains’, PBSR 59 (1991), 15-88. Turkey: R. Cribb, Nomads in Archaeology (Cambridge, 1991)10.1017/CBO9780511552205.
4. e.g. N. Efstratiou, ‘The archaeology of the Greek uplands: the early Iron Age site of Tsouka in the Rhodope mountains’, BSA 88 (1993), 135-71; S. A. Rosen, ‘A Roman-period pastoral tent camp in the Negev, Israel’, JFA 20 (1993). 441-5110.2307/530073.
5. S. Ott, The Circle of Mountains. A Basque Shepherding Community (Oxford, 1981); R. McC. Netting, Balancing on an Alp. Ecological Change and Continuity in a Swiss Mountain Community (Cambridge, 1981).
6. Cf. S. Hodkinson, ‘Animal husbandry in the Greek polis’, in C. R. Whittaker (ed.), Pastoral Economies in Classical Antiquity (PCPS Suppl. 14; Cambridge, 1988), 35-74, at 51-8; H. A. Forbes, ‘The identification of pastoralist sites within the context of estate-based agriculture in ancient Greece’, BSA 100 (1995), 325-38, at 327.
7. Cf. F. Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II (London, 1972), i. 85-102.
8. P. Halstead, ‘Traditional and ancient rural economy in Mediterranean Europe: plus ça change?’ JHS 107 (1987), 77-87 10.2307/630071 id., ‘Present to past in the Pindhos: diversification and specialisation in mountain economies’, in R. Maggi, R. Nisbet, and G. Barker (eds), Archeologia della Pastorizia nell'Europa Meridionale (Rivista di Studi Liguri, 56; Bordighera, 1990), 61-80.
9. Cf. M. Corbier, ‘La transhumance entre le Samnium et l'Apulie: continuités entre l'époque républicaine et l'époque impériale’, in La romanisation du Samnium au IIe et Ier siècles av. J.-C. (Naples, 1991), 149-76, arguing that Medieval patterns must not be assumed for Roman Italy.
10. H. A. Forbes, review of M. Herzfeld, Poetics of Manhood (see below, n. 98), LCM 15 (1990), 8-16, at 12-14.
11. Cf. the synthesis of Barker and Grant (n. 5).
12. J. Breuilly, ‘Introduction: making comparisons in history’, in id., Labour and Liberalism in Nineteenth-Century Europe (Manchester and New York, 1992), 1-25. For more detailed introductions to the varying logics of comparative history, see T. Skocpol and M. Somers, ‘The uses of comparative history in macrosocial enquiry’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, 22 (1980), 174-9710.1017/S0010417500009282 H.-G. Haupt and J. Kocka (eds), Geschichte und Vergleich: Ansätze und Ergebnisse international vergleichender Geschichtsschreibung (Frankfurt am Main and New York, 1996). We are grateful to Mr T. Weber for some of these references.
13. On the Mediterranean as a whole see J. Boyazoglu and J.-C. Flamant, ‘Mediterranean systems of animal production’, in J. G. Galaty and D. L. Johnson (eds), The World of Pastoralism: Herding Systems in Comparative Perspective (London and New York, 1990), 353-93.
14. L. Nixon, J. Moody, S. Price, and O. Rackham, ‘Archaeological survey in Sphakia, Crete’, Echos du monde classique/Classical Views (EMC/CV), 32 = n.s. 7 (1988), 157-73; ‘Archaeological survey in Sphakia, Crete’, EMC/CV 33 = n.s. 8 (1989), 201-15; iid., ‘Archaeological survey in Sphakia, Crete’, with V. Niniou-Kindeli, EMC/CV 34 = n.s. 9 (1990), 213-20; iid., ‘Rural settlement in Sphakia, Crete’, in P. Doukellis and L. Mendoni (eds), Structures rurales et sociétés antiques, actes du colloque de Corfou 14-16 mai 1992 (Annale littéraires de l'Université de Besançon; Paris, 1994), 255-64; J. Moody, L. Nixon, S. Price, and O. Rackham, ‘Surveying poleis and larger sites in Sphakia’, in W. C. Cavanagh and M. Curtis (eds), Post-Minoan Crete: Proceedings of the First Colloquium (BSA Studies, 2; London, 1998), 87-95. Cf. also Rackham and Moody, 159-64.
15. See Nixon, Moody et al. 1994 (n. 16), 256-8.
16. The final paper publication of the Sphakia Survey will include a full discussion of pastoralism in Sphakia.
17. Wace and Thompson, 2-5, 10-11.
18. Chang (n. 4); Chang and Tourtellotte.
19. Halstead 1990 (n. 10); H. R. Reinders and W. Prummel, ‘Transhumance in Hellenistic Thessaly’, Environmental Archaeology, 3 (1998), 81-95 10.1179/146141098790523659. On the Vlachs see further: G. Weigand, Die Aromunen (Leipzig, 1895); T. Winnifrith, The Vlachs: A History of a Balkan People (London, 1987). On the Sarakatsani see J. K. Campbell, Honour, Family and Patronage. A Study of Institutions and Moral Values in a Greek Mountain Community (Oxford, 1964); G. B. Kavadias, Pasteurs-nomades méditerranéens: les Saracatsans de Grèce (Paris, 1965).
20. E. Benveniste, ‘Noms d'animaux en indo-européen’, Bulletin de la Société de Linguistique de Paris, 45 (1949), 74-103, at 91-100; Le Vocabulaire des institutions indo-européennes (Paris, 1969), i. 37-45.
21. J. Blache, L'Homme et la montagne (Paris, 1933), 13-41 J. R. McNeill, The Mountains of the Mediterranean World (Cambridge, 1992), 112-14, 276-8210.1017/CBO9780511529023.
22. X. de Planhol, De la plaine pamphylienne aux lacs pisidiens. Nomadisme et vie paysanne (Paris, 1958); Cribb (n. 5), 113-32.
23. J. A. Marino, Pastoral Economics in the Kingdom of Naples (Baltimore and London, 1988); G. Barker, R. Hodges, C. Hunt, J. Lloyd, M. Suano, P. Taylor, and C. Wickham, A Mediterranean Valley. Landscape Archaeology and Annales History in the Biferno Valley (London and New York, 1995), 34-7.
24. Braudel (n. g) is not himself committed to non-change in transhumance, though the view is sometimes attributed to him. R. E. Rhoades and S. I. Thompson, ‘Adaptive strategies in alpine environments: beyond ecological particularism’, American Ethnologist, 2 (1975), 535-5110.1525/ae.1975.2.3.02a00110, stress the environment.
25. J. Lewthwaite, ‘Plains tails from the hills: transhumance in Mediterranean archaeology’, in A. Sheridan and G. Bailey (eds), Economic Archaeology: Towards an Integration of Ecological and Social Approaches (BAR S.96; Oxford, 1981), 57-66 P. Horden and N. Purcell, The Corrupting Sea: A Study of Mediterranean History (Oxford and Maiden, MA, 2000), 80-7, 197-200. For a study of possible Iron Age uses of longdistance transhumance routes known from the Mesta, see E. Sánchez-Moreno, ‘Cross-cultural links in ancient Iberia: socio-economic anatomy of hospitality’, OJA 20 (2001), 391-404.
26. Cf. A. M. Rosen, C. Chang, and F. R. Grigoriev, ‘Palaeoenvironments and economy of Iron Age Saka-Wusun agro-pastoralists in southeastern Kazakhstan’, Antiquity, 74 (2000), 611-23. This area has been attractive to pastoralists since the Iron Age ‘because of its great environmental diversity within a mere 80 km’ (p. 612).
27. E. Le Roy Ladurie, Times of Feast, Times of Famine: A History of Climate since the Year 1000 (London, 1972); Rackham and Moody, 38-41, 123-8; Frostiana: or a History of the River Thames, in a Frozen State; with an Account of the Late Severe Frost; and the Wonderful Effects of Frost, Snow, Ice, and Cold, in England, and in Different Parts of the World; Interspersed with Various Amusing Anecdotes. To Which is Added, the Art of Skating (London: printed and published on the Ice on the River Thames, February 5, 1814, by G. Davies) eit. Bonnie Blackburn and Leofrane Holford-Strevens, The Oxford Companion to the Year (Oxford, 1999), 70-1.
28. Marino (n. 25), 66.
29. McNeill (n. 23), 235-6.
30. Barker and Grant (n. 5).
31. H. A. Forbes, ‘European agriculture viewed bottom-side upwards: fodder- and forage-provision in a traditional Greek community’, Environmental Archaeology, 1 (1998), 19-34 10.1179/146141096790605740.
32. H.A. Koster, ‘The Ecology of Pastoralism in Relation to Changing Patterns of Land Use in North-East Peloponnese’ (unpublished Ph.D. diss.; University of Pennsylvania, 1977).
33. Netting (n. 7).
34. Campbell (n. 21).
35. Sivignon.
36. Marino (n. 25), 42; Barker and Grant (n. 5), 30; Barker et al. (n. 25), 35 fig. 16.
37. Klein (n. 2).
38. Cf. G. Burgel, Pobia: Étude géographique d'un village crétois (Athens, 1965), 26-8 on central Crete.
39. Marino (n. 25), 42-3; Barker et al. (n. 25), 34-6. In Spain there were special royal officials to enforce such rulings: Klein (n. 2), 18-22, 88-92.
40. P. Halstead and J. Tierny, ‘Leafy hay: an ethnoarchaeological study in NW Greece’, Environmental Archaeology, 1 (1998), 71-80 10.1179/146141096790605777.
41. A. M. Khazanov, Nomads and the Outside World (Cambridge, 1984); Hodkinson (n. 8), 51-8; id., ‘Imperialist democracy and market-oriented pastoral production in classical Athens’, Anthropozoologica, 16 (1992), 53-60.
42. S. Hodkinson, ‘Politics as a determinant of pastoralism: the case of southern Greece, ca. 800-300 BC’, in Maggi et al. (n. 10), 139-63
43. A. Chaniotis, ‘Problems of “pastoralism” and “transhumance” in classical and hellenistic Crete’, Orbis Terrarum, 1 (1994), 1-50.
44. M. Corbier, ‘Fiscus and patrimonium: the Saepinum inscription and transhumance in the Abruzzi’, JRS 73 (1983), 126-31; cf. M. Pasquinucci, ‘La transumanza nell'Italia romana’, in E. Gabba and Pasquinucci, Strutture agrane e allevamento transumante nell’ Italia romana (III I sec. a. c.) (Pisa, 1979), 75-182 Barker et al. (n. 25), 244.
45. Cribb (n. 5), 61-2, 135; state-run collectivist farms may organize nomadic pastoralism: C. Humphrey and D. Sneath (eds), Culture and Environment in Inner Asia, 2 vols (Cambridge, 1996), i. 3.
46. J. T. Killen, ‘The wool industry of Crete in the late bronze age’, BSA 59 (1964), 1-15 id., ‘The textile industries at Pylos and Knossos’, in C. W. Shclmerdine and T. G. Palaima (eds), Pylos Comes Alive (New York, 1984), 49-63; id., ‘Records of sheep and goats at Mycenaean Knossos and Pylos’, Bulletin on Sumerian Agriculture, 7 (1993), 209-18; E. Barber, Prehistoric Textiles: The Development of Cloth in the Neolithic and Bronze Ages with Special Reference to the Aegean (Princeton, 1990), 284.
47. P. Halstead, ‘Lost sheep? On the Linear B evidence for breeding flocks at Mycenaean Knossos and Pylos’, Minos, 25-6 (1993), 343-65, id., ‘Missing sheep: On the meaning and wider significance of O in Knossos sheep records’, BSA 94 (1999), 145-66.
48. P. Garnsey, ‘Mountain economies in southern Europe. Thoughts on the early history, continuity and individuality of Mediterranean upland pastoralism’, in Whittaker (n. 8), 196-209. See S. R. Epstein, An Island for Itself: Economic Development and Social Change in Late Medieval Sicily (Cambridge, 1992), 169-7610.1017/CBO9780511523151 for the development of this point in relation to late Medieval Sicily and Italy (a reference we owe to Dr N. Stargardt).
49. Alexandria: S. D. Goitein, A Mediterranean Society: The Jewish Communities of the Arab World as Portrayed by the Documents of the Cairo Geniza (Berkeley, 1967-1993), i. 46, 124 France and Italy: F. Thiriet, La Romanic vénitienne au moyen âge (BEFAR, 193; Paris, 1959), 324.
50. In the second millennium BC in parts of Greece, according to P. Halstead, ‘The development of agriculture and pastoralism in Greece: when, how, who and what?’, in D. R. Harris (ed.), The Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia (London, 1996), 296-309.
51. A. S. Sherratt, ‘Plough and pastoralism: aspects of the secondary products revolution’, in I. Hodder, G. Isaac, and N. Hammond (eds), Patterns of the Past: Studies in Honour of David Clarke (Cambridge, 1981), 261-305 repr. in Sherratt, Economy and Society in Prehistoric Europe: Changing Perspectives (Edinburgh, 1996), 158-98. Archaeozoology is an important tool in determining the use made of animals, though its interpretation is sometimes controversial: S. Payne, ‘Zooarchaeology in Greece: a reader's guide’, in N. C. Wilkie and W. D. E. Coulson (eds), Contributions to Aegean Archaeology: Studies in Honor of William A. McDonald (Minneapolis, 1985), 211-44; P. Halstead, ‘Pastoralism or household herding? Problems of scale and specialization in early Greek animal husbandry’, World Archaeology, 28 (1996), 20-42 10.1080/00438243.1996.9980329 T. P. O'Connor, ‘On the difficulty of dating seasonal slaughtering of sheep’, Environmental Archaeology, 3 (1998), 5-11 10.1179/146141098790523596.
52. Marino (n. 25), 54-6.
53. Killen 1964 (n. 49) and 1984 (n. 49).
54. Quoted in C. Chang and H. A. Koster, ‘Beyond bones: toward an archaeology of pastoralism’, in M. B. Schiffer (ed.), Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory, ix (New York, 1986), 97-148, at 98.
55. Cribb (n. 5), 15-18.
56. Koster (n. 34); Sherratt (n. 55); Hodkinson (n. 8); Forbes (n. 33); L. Foxhall, ‘Snapping up the unconsidered trifles: the use of agricultural residues in ancient Greek and Roman farming’, Environmental Archaeology, 1 (1998), 35-40 10.1179/146141096790605687.
57. Cribb (n. 5), 23-7.
58. For other examples of pastoral and agricultural calendars see Barker and Grant (n. 5), fig. 8 (on Cicolano mountains of central Italy); Campbell (n. 21), 19-24 (on pastoral year of the Sarakatsani of northern Greece); S. Greger, Village on the Plateau: Magoulas, a Mountain Village in Crete (Studley, 1988), 55 (on Lasithi plateau of Crete); McNeill (n. 23), 113 (on Taurus mountains); Marino (n. 25), 40-2, 53-4 (on Abruzzi-Pugha); below, section VII.
59. Koster (n. 34), 240-1; Lewthwaite (n. 27).
60. S. E. Alcock, J. F. Cherry, and J. L. Davis, ‘Intensive survey, agricultural practices and the classical landscape of Greece’, in I. Morris (ed.), Classical Greece: Ancient Histories and Modern Archaeologies (Cambridge, 1994), 137-70; A. Snodgrass, ‘Response: the archaeological aspects’, ‘Plough and pastoralism: aspects of the secondary products revolution’. 197-200, at 199-200.
61. Marino (n. 25), 43-4.
62. ‘Intensive survey, agricultural practices and the classical landscape of Greece’. 58-60.
63. Cf. Chang and Koster (n. 58), 103 on Greece.
64. E. Brumfiel, ‘Weaving and cooking: women's production in Aztec Mexico’, in J. M. Gero and M. Conkey (eds), Engendering Archaeology: Women in Prehistory (Oxford, 1991), 224-51; M. Conkey, ‘Contexts of action, contexts for power: material culture and gender in the Magdalenian’, ‘Intensive survey, agricultural practices and the classical landscape of Greece’. 57-92; J. Gero, ‘Gender lithics: women's roles in stone tool production’, ‘Intensive survey, agricultural practices and the classical landscape of Greece’. 163-93.
65. Above, section V; cf. also C. Oxby, ‘The involvement of agropastoralist women in livestock programmes’, in T. Wallace (ed. with C. March),Changing Perceptions: Writings on Gender and Development (Oxford, 1991), 202-9; C. Watson, ‘Turkana women: their contribution in a pastoralist society’, ‘Weaving and cooking: women's production in Aztec Mexico’. 193-201.
66. L. Nixon, ‘Women, children and weaving’, in P. P. Betancourt, V. Karageorghis, R. Laffineur, and W.-D. Niemeier (eds), Meletemata: Studies in Aegean Archaeology Presented to Malcolm H. Wiener as lie Enters his 65th Year (Aegaeum, 20; Liège and Austin, TX, 1999), 561-7.
67. Wace and Thompson, 78-84, 95, 119-20, and pls. 12 and 13 a.
68. Sivignon, 22.
69. ‘Weaving and cooking: women's production in Aztec Mexico’. 22.
70. Chang and Tourtellotte; the same applies to Chang (n. 4).
71. Basically, women spin and weave; they also do some finishing of woven cloth, but it seems that only men are fullers. Killen 1964 (n. 49); id., ‘The Knossos Ld (1) tablets’, in E. Risch and H. Mühlstein (eds), Colloquium Mycenaeum: Actes du VIeme Colloque international sur les lextes mycéniens et égéens tenu à Chaumont sur Neuchâtel du 7 au 13 Septembre 1975 (Geneva 1979), 151-81 at 160 and n. 30; id. 1984 (n. 49); Barber (n. 49), 283; T. G. Palaima, ‘Potter and fuller: the royal craftsmen’, in R. Laffineur and P. P. Betancourt (eds), TEXNH: Craftsmen, Craftswomen and Craftsmanship in the Aegean Bronze Age (Aegaeum 16; Liège and Austin, TX, 1997), 407-12 (mentioning a male fuller, and male purple dye-workers).
72. Nixon (n. 70), 564-7, gives the argument; see also Killen 1984 (n. 49), 49-52; id., ‘Epigraphy and interpretation in the Knossos WOMAN and CLOTH records’, in J.-P. Olivier and T. G. Palaima (eds), Texts, Tablets and Scribes: Studies in Mycenaean Epigraphy and Economy Offered to Emmett L. Bennett, Jr. (Minos suppl. 10; Salamanca, 1988), 167-83; J. Chadwick, ‘The women of Pylos’, Chang and Tourtellotte; the same applies to Chang. 43-5; Palaima (n. 75).
73. P. Halstead, ‘The Mycenaean palatial economy, making the most of the gaps in the evidence’, PCPS 38 (1992), 57-86. Killen (pers. comm.) notes that there is evidence for weavers whom the centres did not control directly, provided by the commodity *146 on the Pylos Ma tablets, which is almost certainly a linen fabric. This cloth was not produced under palace direction, but acquired by the palace though the taxation system. There is no evidence about the sex of these weavers. Nixon (n. 70), 566 and n. 16.
74. J. Harvey, Traditional Textiles of Central Asia (London, 1996), 47-8, with memorable photograph of a bearded Kohistani man spinning fleece with a drop spindle.
75. O. M. Radostits, D. C. Blood, and C. C. Gray, Veterinary Medicine: A Textbook of the Diseases of Cattle, Sheep, Pigs, Goats, and Horses (8th edn.; London, 1994); M. Antoniou, Y. Tselentis, T. Babalis, A. Gikas, N. Stratigakis, I. Vlaehonikolis, A. Kalatos, and M. Fioretos, ‘The seroprevalence ol ten zoönoses in two villages of Crete, Greece’, European Journal of Epidemiology, 11. 4 (1995), 415-2310.1007/BF01721226 8549708 (on Tymbaki and Anogeia).
76. For photographs of women actively engaged in agricultural tasks in traditional Greece, see K. Trantalidou. ‘Agriculture, animal husbandry, hunting, fishing’, in G. A. Papathanassopoulos (ed.), Neolithic Culture in Greece (Athens, 1996), 95-101, at figs. 30 (winnowing), 31 (pounding pulses), 33 (ploughing), and I. Tzachili, ‘Weaving―basketry’, Traditional Textiles of Central Asia, 137-9, at figs. 38 (sheep-shearing), 39 (spinning).
77. Halstead (n. 55), 35.
78. A. Peatfield, ‘Rural ritual in Bronze Age Crete: the peak sanctuary at Atsipadhes’, CAJ 2 (1992), 59-87 10.1017/S0959774300000482, at 72, 78-9.
79. M. Jost, Sanctuaires et cultes d'Arcadie (Paris, 1985), 439-49.
80. P. Borgeaud, The Cult of Pan in Ancient Greece (Chicago and London, 1988), 48-52 Jost (n. 83), 467-70.
81. M. Andreadaki-Vlasaki, The County of Khania through its Monuments (Athens, 1997), 59, 60-1.
82. These remarks draw on the paper by L. Nixon, ‘Sacred landscapes in early modern Greece: outlying churches and icon stands in Sphakia SW Crete’, presented at the ‘Work of Memory Conference’, Swansea, June 2000. A longer version is being submitted for publication.
83. M. H. Jameson, ‘Sacrifice and animal husbandry in classical Greece’, in Whittaker (n. 8), 87-119, at 102-3.
84. Wace and Thompson, 48.
85. ‘Sacrifice and animal husbandry in classical Greece’. 48, 77; Campbell (n. 21), 343-4; S. Georgoudi, ‘Quelques problemes de la transhumance dans la Grèce ancienne’, REG 87 (1974), 155-85, at 169 n. 54; in Italy two festivals of St Michael, 8 May and 29 September: Marino (n.25), 40, 44.
86. O. Murray, ‘The idea of the shepherd king from Cyrus to Charlemagne’, in P P. Godman and O. Murray (eds), Latin Poetry and the Classical Tradition (Oxford, 1990), 1-14, at 6.
87. ‘The idea of the shepherd king from Cyrus to Charlemagne’. 7.
88. Cf. ‘The idea of the shepherd king from Cyrus to Charlemagne’. 5.
89. e.g. A. Appadurai (ed.), The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective (Cambridge, 1986). For discussion of consumption among modern Cretan pastoralists, see now E. Vardaki, ‘Consuming Pastoralism: An Anthropological Insight in the Archaeology of Animal Husbandry’ (Ph. D. Diss., Oxford, 2001).
90. J. T. Killen, ‘Thebes scalings, Knossos tablets and Mycenaean state banquets’, BICS 39 (1994), 67-84.
91. Jameson (n. 88), 90-3. Fleeces do not themselves seem to have been a major pastoral product in the Bronze Age, but they may have had a special, restricted use for ceremonial wear, e.g. the ‘priestess’ from the West House at Akrotiri may be wearing a fleece garment (S. A. Immerwahr, Aegean Painting in the Bronze Age (University Park, PA, 1990), pl. 21); and some ol the men and women involved in sacrifice on sides A and B of the Haghia Triadha sarcophagus wear fleecy-looking kilts or skirts (‘The idea of the shepherd king from Cyrus to Charlemagne’., pls. 50, 51). Actual hides in Linear B are ox-hides where careful account of them was kept (C. W. Shelmerdine, ‘Review of Aegean prehistory VI: the palatial Bronze Age of the southern and central Greek mainland’, AJA 101 (1997), 537-8510.2307/507109, at 567 and n. 186); their final use was not recorded but leather is only the most obvious. Aegean wall-paintings show spotted animals, garments, and objects made from (ox-)hides, e.g. sacrificial bovines appearing together with the fleeces on the Haghia. Triadha sarcophagus; bulls from Mycenae (Immerwahr, ‘The idea of the shepherd king from Cyrus to Charlemagne’., pl. 16); figure-of-eight shields from several sites (Tiryns: Immerwahr, ‘The idea of the shepherd king from Cyrus to Charlemagne’., pl. 19); a ship's cabin from Thera (Immerwahr, ‘The idea of the shepherd king from Cyrus to Charlemagne’., pl. 15); and a chariot box on the Haghia Triadha Sarcophagus (Immerwahr, ‘The idea of the shepherd king from Cyrus to Charlemagne’., pl. 52). That hides had value is confirmed, for example, by the fifth century BC inscription for the appointment of a priestess for the Temple of Athene Nike on the Akropolis at Athens, whose salary included money, plus legs and hides from public sacrifices (ML no. 44 = IG i3, 35). In the fourth century BC the taxes on upwards of 850 oxen sacrificed annually at Athens were a significant element in stale revenues (V. J. Rosivach, The System of Public Sacrifice in Fourth-Century Athens (American Classical Studies, 34; Atlanta, GA, 1994).
92. N. Gavrielides, ‘Name days and feasting: social and ecological implications of visiting patterns in a Greek village of the Argolid’, Anthropological Quarterly, 47 (1974), 48-70 10.2307/3317026.
93. M. Herzfeld, The Poetics of Manhood. Contest and Identity in a Cretan Mountain Village (Princeton, 1985), 163-205.
94. Sherratt (n. 55).
95. Barber (n. 49), 314-30.
96. Shelmerdine (n. 96), 562.
97. Barber (n. 49), 358-82.
98. Sherratt (n. 55), 276-7 = 174-5; id., ‘The secondary exploitation of animals in the Old World’, in id. 1996 (n. 55), 199-228, at 205-8.
99. Murray (n. 91), 3.
100. Cf. again Shaw (n. 99). B. D. Shaw, ‘Fear and loathing: the nomad menace and Roman Africa’, in C. M. Wells (ed.), Roman Africa/L'Afrique romaine (Revue de l'Université d'Ottawa, 52; Ottawa, 1982), 25-46, repr. in id., Shaw 1995 (n. 99, ch. 7), shows that the actual relationship between nomads and the settled population in Roman north Africa was one of symbiosis.
101. C. Chang, ‘Pastoral transhumance in the southern Balkans as a social ideology: ethnoarchaeological research in northern Greece’, American Anthropologist, 95 (1993), 687-703 10.1525/aa.1993.95.3.02a00080.
102. Murray (n. 91), 4.
103. M. L. West, The East Face of Helicon: West Astatic Elements in Early Poetry and Myth (Oxford, 1997).
104. Cf. R. G. A. Buxton, ‘Imaginary Greek mountains’, JHS 112 (1992), 1-15 10.2307/632149, and id., Imaginary Greece: The Contexts of Mythology (Cambridge, 1994), 81-96.
105. G. Morgan, ‘Cretan poetry: sources and inspiration’, Kr. Chron. 14 (1960), 7-68, 203-70, 379-434, at 9-43 (repr. Heraklion, 1960); Herzfeld (n. 98), 26-33.
106. Chang and Tourtellotte.
107. Wace and Thompson, 4, 53-8, 153-6.
108. Chang and Tourtellotte. 50.