A full loaf is better than half: The constitutional protection of economic, social and cultural rights in malawi

Journal of African Law

Volumn 49, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 207-241

  Chirwa, Danwood Mzikenge ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CAPE TOWN   (South Africa)

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EID: 85011792444     PISSN: 00218553     EISSN: 14643731     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0021855305000148     Document Type: Article

References (206)

1. A. Reynolds, Electoral Systems and Democratisation in Southern Africa, New York, 1999, 282.
2. The phrase “socio-economic rights” is used hereafter as a shorthand for economic, social a cultural rights. Most African Constitutions adopted after gaining independence from colonial rule contained civil and political rights only. See T. Allen, “Commonwealth constitutions and implied social and economic rights”, (1994) 6 RADIC 555.
3. C.A. Odinkalu, “The judiciary and the legal protection of human rights in common law Africa: allocating responsibility for the failure of post independence Bills of Rights”, (1996) 8 ASICL Pro. 124.
4. See D.M. Chirwa, “Minister of Health and Others v. TAC & Others: its implications for t combat against HIV/Aids and the protection of economic, social and cultural rights in Africa”, (2003) 9(1) East African Journal of Peace and Human Rights 174, 178.
5. African Constitutions are reprinted in C. Heyns (ed.), Human Rights in Africa: Domestic Human Rights Law in Africa Leiden, 2004.
6. Republic of Malawi Constitution Act No. 20 of 1994.
7. F.E. Kanyongolo, “The limits of liberal democratic constitutionalism”, in K.M. Phiri and K.R. Ross (eds.), Democratisation in Malawi: A Stocktaking, Blantyre, 1998, 353, 354.
8. Democratisation in Malawi: A Stocktaking.
9. See generally D.D. Phiri, John Chilembwe, Lilongwe, 1976.
10. See generally B. Pachai, Malawi: The History of the Nation, London, 1973.
11. C. Ng'ong'ola, “Judicial mediation in electoral politics in Malawi”, in H. Engrund (ed.), A Democracy of Chameleons: Politics and Culture in the New Malawi, Stockholm, 2002, 62, 23
12. Kanyongolo, n. 6 above, 357.
13. Malawi Government, Proposals for the Republican Constitution of Malawi, Zomba, 1965, 3.
14. M.S.C.A. Criminal Appeal No. 9 of 1992 (unreported).
15. K.M. Phiri and K.R. Ross, “Introduction: from totalitarianism to democracy in Malawi”, in Phiri and Ross, n. 6 above, 9, 10.
16. See, e.g., Human Rights Watch, Where Silence Rules: The Suppression of Dissent in Malawi, New York, 1990
17. H. Meinhardt and N. Patel, Malawi's Process of Democratic Transition: An Analysis of Political Developments Between 1990 and 2003, Lilongwe, 2003, 3–7.
18. Act No. 1 of 1966. This Act empowered the minister responsible (in this era Dr Banda himself) to declare any person, whether within or outside Malawi, subject to forfeiture if the minister satisfied himself that such person was acting in a manner prejudicial to the safety or economy of the state or subversive to the lawfully established government. Authority exercised under this Act was not subject to judicial challenge. See B.P. Wanda, “The rights of detained and accused persons in post-Banda Malawi”, [1996] 40 J.A.L. 221, 224.
19. K.M. Phiri, “Dr Banda's cultural legacy and its implications for a democratic Malawi”, in Phiri and Ross (eds.), n. 6 above, at 147, 164.
20. See ss. 2–3 of the Decency in Dress Act (Cap. 7:04, Laws of Malawi).
21. P.J. Kishindo, “Politics of language in contemporary Malawi”, in Phiri and Ross (eds.), n. 6 above, at 252, 253–261.
22. See W.C. Chirwa, “Democracy, ethnicity, and regionalism: the Malawian experience, 1992–1996”, in Phiri and Ross (eds.), n. 6 above, at 52, 55–63, arguing that
23. M.S. Mzunda and K.R. Ross, “Introduction”, in M.S. Mzunda and K.R. Ross (eds.), Church, Law and Political Transition in Malawi 1992–94, Gweru, 1995, 9
24. Phiri, n. 20 above, 149–148
25. A.P. Mutharika, “The 1995 Democratic Constitution of Malawi”, [1996] J.A.L. 205, 209.
26. Mutharika, n. 24 above, at 208.
27. D.M. Chirwa, “Democratisation in Malawi 1994–2002: completing the vicious circle”, (2003) 19(2) South African Journal on Human Rights, 316, 317–318.
28. J. Banda, “The Constitutional change debate of 1993–1995”, in Phiri and Ross, n. 6 above, at 316, 321.
29. “The Constitutional change debate of 1993–1995”.
30. Clement Ng'ong'ola has remarked that “The interim Constitution of 1994 has the dubious distinction, among constitutions, of being enacted in one day”. See Ng'ong'ola, n. 10 above, at 64.
31. Meinhardt and Patel, n. 17 above, at 12.
32. Banda, n. 29 above, at 322
33. Kanyongolo, n. 6 above, at 364.
34. K. Bampton, “Making constitutions: raising public awareness”, in J. Lewis et al. (eds.), Human Rights and the Making of Constitutions: Malawi: Kenya, Uganda, Cambridge, 1995, 56, 58.
35. Chirwa, n. 28 above, at 318.
36. Human Rights and the Making of Constitutions: Malawi: Kenya.
37. Among those in attendance were politicians, traditional leaders, professionals, businessmen, women's groups and the young peoples' association. See Banda, n. 29 above at 322.
38. See Report of the Constitutional Committee to the National Assembly on the National Constitutional Conference on the Provisional Constitution Held in Lilongwe, 20–24 February, 1995, 76–79.
39. See UNDP, Human Development Report 2004, available at http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2004/ (accessed: 20 June, 2005)
40. The World Bank, “Malawi at a Glance”, available at http://www.worldbank.org/cgi-bin/sendoff.cgi?page=/data/countrydata/aag/mwi_aag.pdf (accessed: 20 June, 2005).
41. “Malawi at a Glance”.
42. S. Liebenberg and K. Pillay (eds.), Socio-economic Rights in South Africa, Community Law Centre, 2000, 16.
43. J. de Waal, I. Currie, and G. Erasmus, The Bill of Rights Handbook, Lansdowne, 2000, 398.
44. See T. Maluwa, “Discourses on democracy and human rights in Africa: contextualising the relevance of human rights to developing countries”, (1997) 9 RADIC 55, 70; D.
45. Poverty signifies a lack of basic capabilities essential to a dignified life. It connotes a state in which a person is unable to live a long, healthy and creative life, nor to enjoy a decent life worthy of self-respect and the respect of others. UNDP, Human Development Report, 2000, 73
46. International Council on Human Rights Policy, Duties Sans Frontières: Human Rights and Global Social Justice, Versoix, 2003, 17–19.
47. Liebenberg and Pillay, n. 51 above, at 16
48. International Council on Human Rights Policy
49. International Council on Human Rights Policy.
50. For a detailed analysis of the socio-economic rights provisions in the African Charter, see C.A. Odinkalu, “Implementing economic, social and cultural rights under the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights”, in M. Evans and R. Murray (eds.), The African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights: The System in Practice, 1986–2000, Cambridge, 2002, 178
51. D.M. Chirwa, “The protection of socio-economic rights in the African regional system”, in M. Langford (ed.), Socio-Economic Rights Jurisprudence: Emerging Trends in Comparative and International Law, Cambridge, 2005 (forthcoming).
52. See e.g. D. Beetham, Democracy and Human Rights, Cambridge, 1999
53. C. Scott and P. Macklem, “Constitutional ropes of sand or justiciable guarantees? Social rights in a new South African Constitution”, (1992) 141 University of Pennsylvania Law Review, 1
54. E. de Wet, The Constitutional Enforcement of Economic and Social Rights: The Meaning of the German Constitutional Model for South Africa, Durban, 1996
55. D.M. Davis, “The case against the inclusion of socio-economic demands in a Bill of Rights except as directive principles”, (1992) 8(4) South African Journal on Human Rights 475
56. E. Mureinik “Beyond a charter of luxuries: economic rights in the Constitution”, (1992) 8(4) South African Journal on Human Rights 464.
57. Art. 18(1).
58. Art. 55(2).
59. Art. 14(3).
60. H. Onoria, ‘Introduction to the African system of protection of human rights and the draft Protocol’ in W. Benedek, E.M. Kisaakye, and G. Oberleitner (eds.), Human Rights of Women: International Instruments and African Experiences, New York, 2002, 321, 233–234.
61. See also L. Lindholt, Questioning the Universality of Human Rights: The African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights in Botswana, Malawi and Mozambique, Aldershot, 1997, 222, arguing that: “This section not only reflects the principle of equality, but also takes the responsibility of the State potentially far into the private domain, which is appropriate in relation to domestic violence against women and children.”
62. S. 22(6). Interestingly, s. 19 of the Marriage Act (Cap. 25:01, Laws of Malawi) prescribes 21 years as the minimum age for marriage.
63. The National Commission on Women in Development, Women and the Law in Malawi, Lilongwe, 1993, 19.
64. C.A. Hardee, “Balancing acts: the rights of women and cultural minorities in Kenyan marital law”, (2004) 79 New York University Law Review 712, 728.
65. New York University Law Review.
66. R.P. Newell, “‘To be sure he is my husband good enough’ or is he? Analysis of common law marriage in Pennsylvania”, (2004) 109 Penn State Law Review 337
67. Wikipedia, “Common law marriage”, available at http://www.answers.com/topic/common-law-marriage (accessed 20 June, 2005).
68. See e.g. Njoki v. Mutheru, 6 Decision Ct. App. Kenya 30 (Civil Appeal No. 71 of 1984)
69. Gichuru v. Gachuhi, Civil Appeal No, 76 of 1998 (unpublished)
70. Fenton v. Reed, 4 Johns 52 (N.Y. Supp. Ct. 1809)
71. Meister v. Moore 96 US 76 (1987)
72. See also Advice Guide, “Cohabitation and marriage: legal differences”, available at http://www.adviceguide.org.uk/scotland/family_ parent/family_family_scotland/cohabitation_and_marriage_legal_differences_scotland/scotland/ family_parent/ family_family_scotland/ cohabitation_and_marriage_legal_differences_scotland. htm (accessed: 20 June, 2005).
73. Previously, marriages under the Marriage Act had superior protection to all other marriages. For example, a divorce in respect of marriages under the Marriage Act is only possible on five prescribed grounds while other marriages can easily be terminated. Parties to a marriage under the Marriage Act have better protection in terms of inheritance and maintenance than is the case with other marriages under the Wills and Inheritance Act (Cap. 10:02, Laws of Malawi) and the Married Women Maintenance Act, 1882.
74. Laws of Malawi.
75. E.g. art. 17(2) of the African Charter and art. 27 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR).
76. R.K.M. Smith, “Moving towards articulating linguistic rights-new developments in Europe”, (1999) 8 Michigan State University-DCL Journal of International Law 437, 440–441. Exceptions include article 27 of the ICCPR and article 19 of the Namibian Constitution.
77. See Phiri, n. 20 above, at 163
78. Kishindo, n. 22 above, at 253–261.
79. Michigan State University-DCL Journal of International Law.
80. Meyer v. Nebraska 262 US 390 (1923).
81. Gutierrez v. Municipal Court 838 F.2d 1031 (9th Cir. 1988).
82. Human Rights Committee, General Comment No. 23(50), Art 24, adopted at its 1341th Meeting (50th Session) held on 6 April, 1994, para. 6.2.
83. J. de Waal, I. Currie, and G. Erasmus, The Bill of Rights Handbook (4th ed.), Lansdowne, 2001, 483.
84. See also Ex Parte Gauteng Provincial Legislature in re Dispute Concerning the Constitutionality of Certain Provisions of the Gauteng School Education Bill of 1995, 1996 (3) SA 165 (CC).
85. J. Oloka-Onyango, ‘Beyond the rhetoric: reinvigorating the struggle for economic, social and cultural rights in Africa’, (1995) 26 California Western International Law Journal 1, 49–50.
86. M.S.C.A. Civil Appeal No. 22 of 1996 (unreported) (Press Trust Case).
87. Cap. 5:05, Laws of Malawi.
88. Laws of Malawi.
89. See Malawi Congress Party & Others v. Attorney General, Civil Cause No. 2074 of 1995 (unreported).
90. Laws of Malawi.
91. (1963) 1 SCR 561.
92. SCR.
93. SCR.
94. See D.M. Chirwa, “The Press Trust Case: a critical review”, (2000) 6(1) UNIMA Students Law Journal 166.
95. UNIMA Students Law Journal.
96. G. Kamchedzera, “Land tenure relations, the law and develoment in Malawi”, in G.C.Z. Mhone, Malawi at the Crossroads: The Post-Colonial Political Economy, Harare, 1992, 188, 190.
97. Civil cause No. 1839(a) of 1997 (unreported).
98. unreported.
99. unreported. (emphasis in original)
100. See Kamchadzera, n. 102 above, at n. 192. In terms of s. 25 of the Land Act, 1965, customary land in Malawi is the property of the people of Malawi but its legal title vests in perpetuity in the President.
101. Lindholt, n. 62 above, at 215.
102. See e.g. Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights, Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: Globalization and Its Impact on the Full Enjoyment of Human Rights: Progress Report Submitted by J. Oloka-Onyango and D. Udagama, in Accordance with Sub-Commission Resolution 1999/8 and Commission on Human Rights Decision 2000/102, UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/2001/10 (2001)
103. D.M. Chirwa, “Privatisation of water in Southern Africa: a human rights perspective”, (2004) 4(2) African Human Rights Law Journal 218
104. A. Adepoju, The Impact of Structural Adjustment on the Population of Africa, London, 1993
105. B. Sadasivam, “The impact of structural adjustment on women: a governance and human rights agenda”, (1997) 19 Human Rights Quarterly 630.
106. H.H. Ngwenya & F.G. Gondwe v. Automotive Products Ltd, Matter No. 180 of 2000 (unreported) (Ngwenya Case).
107. Civil Appeal No. 52 of 2003 (unreported).
108. Miscellaneous Civil Cause No. 25 of 2000 (unreported) (Guwende Case).
109. MacPherson Nelson Magola v. Press Corporation Limited, Civil Cause No. 3719 of 1998 (unreported).
110. unreported.
111. Blantyre Netting Company v. Chidzulo and Others, M.S.C.A. Civil Appeal No. 17 of 1995 (Unreported).
112. See generally A. Sengupta, “On the theory and practice of the right to development”, (2002) 24(4) Human Rights Quarterly 837.
113. Art. 22.
114. Gwanda Chakuamba & Others v. The Attorney General & Others, M.S.C.A. Civil Appeal No. 20 of 2000 (Unreported).
115. Communication No. 155/96 (unreported).
116. Art. 22(2).
117. Art. 4(1).
118. See UNDP, n. 49 above.
119. Art. 2.
120. Malinki v. Malinki (1978–1980) MLR 441.
121. See e.g. The National Commission on Women in Development, n. 69 above, 22, arguing that on marriage there should be equality between husband and wife in such areas as “The rights to all property acquired during marriage”.
122. UNDP, n. 49 above.
123. The duty to respect requires the State to refrain from interfering with the enjoyment of all fundamental rights and to respect right holders, their freedoms, autonomy, resources, and liberty of their action. See A. Eide, “Realisation of social and economic rights: a minimum threshold approach”, (1989) 10(1–2) Human Rights Law Journal 35, 37
124. H. Shue, Subsistence, Affluence, and US Foreign Policy, Princeton, 1980, 54–55.
125. The duty to protect obligates the State to protect “the freedom of action and the use of resources against other, more assertive or aggressive subjects-more powerful economic interests”. The duty to promote enjoins the State to ensure that individuals are able to exercise their rights and freedoms through promoting tolerance and raising awareness. The duty to fulfil requires that State to facilitate the realization of a right by taking positive measures that enable and assist individuals or groups to realize the right by their own means and to provide the right to those that cannot afford the right using their own means. See Eide, Subsistence, Affluence, and US Foreign Policy
126. Shue, Subsistence, Affluence, and US Foreign Policy
127. SERAC Case, n. 158 below, para. 44–46.
128. Odinkalu, n. 56 above, at 196–198.
129. Communication 155/96 (unpublished) (SERAC Case).
130. Communication, para. 52.
131. Communication 241/2001 (unpublished) (Purohit Case), para. 84. (emphasis added).
132. Para. 2, General Comment No. 3, (1990), “The nature of states parties obligations”, adopted by the CESCR on 14 December, 1990.
133. “The nature of states parties obligations”. See also Purohit Case, n. 160 above, at para. 84.
134. “The nature of states parties obligations”. paras. 3–7.
135. “The nature of states parties obligations”. para. 9.
136. 2000 (11) BCLR 1169 (CC).
137. BCLR. para. 45.
138. BCLR.
139. S. Liebenberg, “South Africa's evolving jurisprudence on socio-economic rights”, (2002) 6(2) Law, Democracy and Development 159, 172.
140. General Comment No. 3, n. 162 above, at para. 9.
141. Law, Democracy and Development.
142. Grootboom, n. 166 above, at para. 46.
143. General Comment No. 3, n. 162 above, at para. 11.
144. Law, Democracy and Development. para. 12.
145. Law, Democracy and Development. para. 10.
146. General Comment No. 3, n. 162, at para. 10.
147. For example, in Tellis v. Bombay Municipal Council [1987] LRC (Const. 351 Ind. SC), the Indian Supreme Court of Appeal upheld the claim by the petitioners that the evictions undertaken by the Bombay Municipal Corporation against them amounted to a violation of the right to life.
148. In Francis Hopu and Tepoaitu Bessert v. France, HRC Communication No. 549/1993, UN Doc CCPR/C/60/D/549/1993 (29 July, 1997), it was held that the construction of a hotel complex on the author's ancestral burial grounds interfered with their right to family and privacy.
149. In Bernard Ominayak, Chief of the Lubikon Lake Band v. Canada, HRC, Communication No. 167/1984, UN Doc. C.C.P.R./C/38/D/167/1984 (26 March, 1990), it was held that by allowing the Government of Alberta to expropriate the territory of the Lubikon Lake Band for the benefit of corporate interests, Canada threatened the way of life and culture of the Lubikon Lake Band contrary to article 27 of the ICCPR.
150. In Yanomami v. Brazil, Res. 12/85 (5 March, 1985), as contained in Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Annual Report of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, O.E.A./Ser.L/V/II.66 (1984–85), it was held that Brazil had violated the right to life, liberty and personal security, the right to residence and movement, and the right to the preservation of health and well-being by allowing massive penetration by outsides into the area traditionally inhabited by the Yanomami Indians, which had devastating physical and psychological consequences for these people.
151. See also López Ostra v. Spain, (1994) 303-C Eur. Court H.R. (ser. A) 41
152. 20 E.H.R.R. 277
153. Guerra v. Italy (1998) I Eur. Court H.R. 210
154. 26 E.H.R.R. 357
155. Rural Land and Entitlement, Kendra, Dehradun v. State of Uttar Pradesh, AIR (1997) SC 965
156. Jain v. State of Karnataka (1993) 4 LRC 234
157. Paschim Banga Khet Mazdoor Samity v. State of West Bengal (1996) AIR SC 2426
158. Eldridge v. British Columbia (Attorney General) (1997) 151 DLR (4th) 577 (SCC)
159. Plyler v. Doe 457 US 202 (1982) 224
160. Goldberg v. Kelly, 397 US 254 (1970).
161. See D.C. Nyasulu v. Southern Bottlers Limited, Matter No. IRC 48 of 2000 (Unreported)
162. See e.g. the Guwende Case, n. 118 above
163. W.K. Saukila v. NICO, Civil Cause No. 117 of 1997 (unreported)
164. Bongwe & Others v. Ministry of Education, Civil Cause No. 80 of 1997 (unreported)
165. Felix Mchawi v. Ministry of Education, Civil Cause No. 82 of 1997 (unreported).
166. M.S.C.A. Civil Appeal No. 18 of 2000 (unreported).
167. M.S.C.A.
168. Chihana Case, n. 13 above.
169. See also T. Maluwa, “The role of international law in the protection of human rights under the Malawi Constitution, (1995) 3 African Yearbook of International Law 77.
170. T.T. Hansen, “Implementation of international human rights standards through the National Courts in Malawi”, [2001] 46(1) J.A.L. 31, 32.
171. Filartiga v. Pena-Irala 630, F 2d 876, 883–4 (2nd Cir, 1980). Emphasis added.
172. The CESCR monitors the implementation of the ICESCR. The purpose of General Comments is to make the experience gained by the CESCR through the examination of state reports available for the benefit of all States Parties in order to assist and promote their further implementation of the ICSCR. See para. 3, “Introduction: The Purpose of General Comments”, UN Doc. E/1989/22. General Comments have proved persuasive in interpreting similar provisions of regional treaties and domestic Constitutions. See D.M. Chirwa, “The right to health in international law: its implications for the obligations of state and non-state actors in ensuring access to essential medicine”, (2003) 19(4) South African Journal on Human Rights 541, 546.
173. Hansen, n. 187 above, at 42.
174. Traditionally, human rights constitute a bulwark against state intrusion into an individual's freedom. See e.g. Van Dijkhorst, J., in De Klerk & Another v. Du Plessis & Others, 1994 (6) BCLR 124 at 130D-131D noting that “Traditionally bills of rights have been inserted in constitutions to strike a balance between governmental and individual liberty”.
175. Germany has long recognized the indirect effect of human rights on private actors. See e.g. Luth Case (1958) 7 BVerf GE 198
176. Mephisto Case (1971) 30 BVerf GE 173
177. Blinkfüer Case (1969) 25 BVerfGE 256
178. D.P. Kommers, The Constitutional Jurisprudence of the Federal Republic of Germany, 2nd edn., Durham & London, 1997
179. B. Markesinis, “Privacy, freedom of expression, and the horizontal effect of the Human Rights Bill: lessons from Germany”, (1999) 115 Law Quarterly Review 47
180. K.M. Lewan, “The significance of constitutional rights for private law: theory and practice in West Germany”, (1968) 17 International and Comparative Law Quarterly 571
181. S. Oeter, “Fundamental rights and their impact on private law-doctrine and practice under the German Constitution”, (1994) 12 Tel Aviv University Studies in Law 7.
182. See G. Hogan and G. White, The Irish Constitution (JM Kerry), Butterworths, 1994, 707
183. Hanrahan v. Merck Sharp & Dohme (Ireland) Ltd [1988] I.L.R.M. 629.
184. The right to bring constitutional claims against private persons in Ireland was recognised in Meskell v. C.I.E [1973] 1 I.R. 121.
185. S. Woolman, “Application”, in M. Chaskalson, et al., Constitutional Law of South Africa, Cape Town, 1999, 10–57, 10–65
186. H. Cheadle and D. Davis, “Structure of the Bill of Rights”, in M.H. Cheadle, D.M. Davis, and N.R.L. Haysom, South African Constitutional Law: The Bill of Rights, Durban, 2002, 1, 3.
187. South African Constitutional Law: The Bill of Rights.
188. D.M. Chirwa, “The doctrine of state responsibility as a potential means of holding private actors accountable for human rights”, (2004) 5(1) Melbourne Journal of International Law 1, 2.
189. Civil Cause No. 2187 of 1994 (unreported).
190. Melbourne Journal of International Law.
191. Kanyongolo, n. 6 above, at 353, 367.
192. Melbourne Journal of International Law.
193. T. Ngwira and M. Kaukonde, “The role of the courts in the promotion of accountability by the government”, (2003) 7(1) UNIMA Students Law Journal 1, 7–8.
194. D. Zimkonde-Nyasulu, “Locus standi in environmental protection: the (con)fusion of public law remedies and Malawi jurisprudence”, (2000) 6(1) UNIMA Students Law Journal 140, 143.
195. R. Murray, The African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights and International Law, Oxford, 2000, 67–68, 87–92.
196. See de Waal et al., n. 87 above, at 81–83.
197. See generally L. Chimango, A Brief History of the Traditional Courts in Malawi, Zomba, 1974
198. L. Chimango, Tradition and Traditional Law: The Role of the National Appeal Court, Zomba, 1975.
199. J. Mbiti, African Religions and Philosophy, New York, 1970, 141.
200. Civil Cause No. 1861 of 2003 (Unreported).
201. W. Trengove, “Judicial remedies for violations of socio-economic rights”, (1999) 1(4) ESR Review 8.
202. See B. Chimpango, “Section 10 of Civil Procedure (suits by or against the Government or Public Officers Act: an anachronism in Malawi's legal system”, (2000) 6(1) UNIMA Students Law Journal 66.
203. Miscellaneous Civil Cause No. 3140 of 2001 (unreported).
204. Constitutional Application No. 6 of 2002 (unreported).
205. Cap. 69: Laws of Uganda. This section provides
206. R. Kunnemann, “A coherent approach to human rights”, (1995) 17 Human Rights Quarterly 323, 332.