Human rights: Implications for labour law

Cambridge Law Journal

Volumn 59, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 168-200

  Palmer, Stephanie ^a  

^a GIRTON COLLEGE   (United Kingdom)

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EID: 85011476615     PISSN: 00081973     EISSN: 14692139     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0008197300000064     Document Type: Article

References (213)

1. HL Deb. vol. 583 col. 1228 (3 November 1997).
2. Human Rights Act, s. 2.
3. See comments by K. Ewing, “The Human Rights Act and Parliamentary Democracy” (1999) 62 M.L.R. 79, 85–86.
4. See D. Oliver, “Common Values in Public and Private Law and the Public/Private Divide” [1997] P.L. 630
5. P. Davies and M. Freedland, “The Impact of Public Law on Labour Law” (1997) 26 I.L.J. 311.
6. S. Deakin, “The Utility of ‘Rights Talk’: Employees' Personal Rights” in Understanding Human Rights, edited by Gearty & Tomkins (Mansell, London 1996) pp. 357–379 at p. 357.
7. See egg., Ahmad v. UK (1981) 4 E.H.R.R. 126
8. Stedman v. UK (1997) 23 E.H.R.R. 168
9. Council for Civil Service v.UK (1988) 10 E.H.R.R. 269.
10. See C. Barnard, “The United Kingdom, the ‘Social Chapter’ and the Amsterdam Treaty” (1997) I.L.J. 275
11. B. Hepple, “The Impact on Labour Law” in B.S. Markesinis (ed.) The Impact of the Human Rights Bill on English Law (Clarendon Press, Oxford 1998) pp. 77–78.
12. See J. Griffith, “Who will Referee the Refs?” The Times Literary Supplement (25 September 1998) pp. 13–14. There will be no specialist court dealing with human rights issues. There is likely to be more debate about judicial appointments especially as there is a lack of transparency in the appointment process.
13. See Young James & Webster v.UK (1982) 4 E.H.R.R. 38. The closed shop trade union cases have exposed the tension between the collective governance framework and the individual rights perspective.
14. See also K. Syrett, “‘Immunity’, ‘Privilege’, and ‘Right’: British Trade Unions and the Language of Labour Law Reform” (1998) 25 Journal of Law and Society 388.
15. See K. Ewing, “The Human Rights Act and Labour Law” [1998] I.L.J. 275. Ewing argues that the overall impact of the Human Rights Act on labour law may be very limited.
16. HC Deb. vol. 312 col. 981 (20 May 1998).
17. HL Deb. vol. 583 col. 475 (18 November 1997).
18. Note Human Rights Act 1998, s. 2.
19. Human Rights Act 1998, s. 3.
20. See G. Morris, “The Human Rights Act and the Public/Private Divide in Employment Law” (1998) 27 I.L.J. 293, 294.
21. Human Rights Act 1998, s. 4.
22. Human Rights Act 1998, s. 4(a).
23. Human Rights Act 1998, s. 10.
24. Human Rights Act 1998, s. 6(3) (a) and (b). The House of Lords when acting in a judicial capacity would be considered a public authority for the purposes of section 6(3).
25. See Human Rights Act 1998, s. 6(4).
26. HL Deb. vol. 582, col 1232 (3 November 1997). There is no list of public authorities.
27. See Rights Brought Home: The Human Rights Bill Cm. 3782 (1997) at para. 2.2.
28. HC Deb. vol. 314, col. 409 (17 June 1998).
29. HC Deb. cols 410–411. See also the comments of the Lord Chancellor.
30. HL Deb. vol. 583 cols. 810–811.
31. HL Deb vol. 583, col. 811 (24 November, 1997).
32. See N. Bamforth, (1999) “Public Authorities, Private Bodies and the Human Rights Act” 58 C.L.J. 159.
33. Compare also the jurisprudence of the European Court of Justice e.g. case C-188/89 Foster v. British Gas plc [1990] E.C.R. I-3313.
34. HC Deb. vol. 314 col. 409 (17 June 1998).
35. See e.g. R.v. Panel on Take-Overs and Mergers, ex p. Datafin [1987] Q.B. 815
36. R.v. Chief Rabbi of the United Hebrew Congregation, ex p. Wachmann [1992] 1 W.L.R. 1036
37. R.v. Disciplinary Committee of the Jockey Club, ex p. Massingberd-Mundy [1993] 2 All E.R. 207
38. R. v. Disciplinary Committee of the Jockey Club, ex p. Aga Khan [1993] 1 W.L.R. 909
39. R.v. Football Association, ex p. Football League [1993] 2 All E.R. 833.
40. See also N. Bamforth 2 All E.R. n. 23
41. above and G.S. Morris, 2 All E.R. n. 14 above.
42. R.v. East Berkshire Health Authority, ex p. Walsh [1985] Q.B. 152
43. R.v. BBC, ex p. Lavelle [1983] I.C.R. 99
44. R. v. Derbyshire County Council, ex p. Noble [1990] I.C.R. 808
45. HL Debs. vol. 583 col. 812 (24 November 1997).
46. See also K. Ewing, “The Human Rights Act and Labour Law” (1998) I.L.J. 275, at 285–286.
47. See for example, R. v. Crown Prosecution Service, ex p. Hogg [1994] 6 Admin. L.R. 778
48. see B. Hepple, 6 Admin. L.R. n. 7 above pp. 79–80.
49. McLaren v. The Home Office [1990] I.R.L.R. 338
50. Council for the Civil Service Unions v. Minister for the Civil Service [1985] A.C. 374.
51. See also R.v. Home Secretary, ex p. Benwell [1985] Q.B. 554.
52. (1998) I.L.J 293 at 302.
53. I.L.J.
54. She is relying on the comments of Woolf L.J. (as he then was) in McLaren v. The Home Office [1990] I.R.L.R. 338.
55. I.R.L.R.
56. See R.v.Fernhill Manor School, ex p. Brown (1993) 5 Admin. L.R. 159, 175.
57. This section draws upon S. Palmer, “The Human Rights Act 1998: Bringing Rights Home” (1999) 1 Cambridge Yearbook of European Law 125.
58. (1993) 19 E.H.R.R. 112, para 27.
59. N. Bamforth, 19 E.H.R.R. n. 23 above.
60. See Scuderi v. Italy (1993) A 265-A (civil servant)
61. and Darnell v. United Kingdom (1993) A 272 (health service employee).
62. [1979–1980] 1 E.H.R.R. 617 paras. 36 and 37.
63. 1 E.H.R.R. at para. 37.
64. G.S. Morris, 1 E.H.R.R. n. 14 above at pp. 305–306.
65. (1987) 9 E.H.R.R. 328.
66. (1987) 9 E.H.R.R. 25.
67. Gomien, Harris and Zwaak, Law and Practice of the European Convention on Human Rights and the European Social Charter (Council of Europe, Strasbourg 1996), p. 298.
68. (1996) 21 E.H.R.R. 205. See p. 193 below for further discussion.
69. The same conclusion is reached by G. Morris, “The European Convention on Human Rights and Employment: To Which Acts Does it Apply?” [1999] 5 E.H.R.L.R. 496, 499–500.
70. HL Deb. vol. 585 col. 840 (5 February 1998) (Lord Irvine ofLairg).
71. H.R.W. Wade, “The United Kingdom's Bill of Rights” in Constitutional Reform in the United Kingdom: Practice and Principles (Cambridge Centre for Public Law, Hart Publishing, Oxford 1998).
72. See also M. Hunt, “The ‘Horizontal Effect’ of the Human Rights Act” [1998] P.L. 423
73. and N. Bamforth, P.L. n. 23 above.
74. HC Deb. vol. 313 col. 422 (3 June 1998). It may be helpful to draw an analogy with EU law.
75. In Case C-168/95 Criminal Proceedings against Luciano Arcaro [1996] E.C.R. I-4705 it was held that where a Directive covers the same field as domestic law, a court should not distort the meaning of the legislation.
76. See e.g. Derbyshire County Council v. Times Newspapers Ltd. [1992] Q.B. 770 (Court of Appeal). The House of Lords came to the same conclusion, although their Lordships did not consider that it was necessary to base their judgement on the Convention.
77. See also A.G. v. Guardian Newspapers [1987] 1 W.L.R. 1248 (per Lord Templeman).
78. [1993] 4 All E.R. 975.
79. [1993] I.C.R. 612.
80. Section 6(3) appears to go further in ensuring horizontal effect than either the Canadian or South African approaches. See M. Hunt, I.C.R. n. 47 above, p. 441.
81. HL Deb. vol. 583 col. 783 (24 November 1997).
82. Compare what he said in HL Deb. vol. 585 col. 840 (5 February 1998).
83. HL Deb. vol. 583 col. 785 (24 November 1997).
84. There is no duty imposed on the domestic courts to follow these decisions but the individual petition to Strasbourg remains. Note the omission of Articles 1 and 13 discussed above. See discussion of N. Bamforth, [1999] C.L.J. 159, 167–168.
85. (1979) 2 E.H.R.R. 330.
86. D.J. Harris, M. O'Boyle and C. Warbrick, Law of the European Convention on Human Rights (Butterworths, London 1995) 19–22.
87. (1982) 4 E.H.R.R. 38.
88. See also X & Y v. Netherlands (1986) 8 E.H.R.R. 235
89. Plattform “Artzte fur das Leben” v. Austria (1988) 13 E.H.R.R. 204
90. Mrs. Wv.UK(1983) 32 D. R. 190
91. McCann v. UK (1996) 21 E.H.R.R. 97 (right to life in Article 2 gives rise to positive obligation upon the state)
92. Guerra v. Italy (1998) 4 B.H.R.C. 63 (toxic emissions from a chemical factory imposed a positive obligation on the state to ensure efective respect for private and family life under Article 8)
93. A v.UK(1998) 5 B.H.R.C. 137 (violation of Article 3 for failing to provide adequate legal safeguards for children punished by their parents).
94. Jacobs and White, European Convention on Human Rights, 2nd ed, (Clarendon Press, Oxford 1996) pp. 18–19.
95. See Alkema, “Third-Party Applicability or ‘Drittwirkung’ of the European Convention on Human Rights” in F. Matscher & H. Petzold (eds.) Protecting Human Rights: The European Dimension (Carl Heymanns Verlag KG, 1998).
96. See Alkema, Protecting Human Rights: The European Dimension.
97. Craig and Oliver, “The Right to Privacy in the Public Workplace: Should the Private Sector be Concerned?” (1998) 27 I.L.J. 49, at 52.
98. Such a power inequality can be discerned in the recent decision of Guerra v. Italy (1998) 4 B.H.R.C. 63.
99. See Kaye (1990) 18 F.S.R. 62.
100. But see the comments of Laws J. in Hellewell v. Chief Constable of Derbyshire [1995] 1 W.L.R. 804 at 807.
101. Compare with Halford v.UK (1997) 25 E.H.R.R.523 (concerned an employee and telephone tapping in the public sector).
102. Sir W. Wade, 25 E.H.R.R. n. 40 above, at pp. 62–64.
103. See also A. Clapham, “The Privatisation of Human Rights” [1995] E.H.R.L.R. 20.
104. See e.g. R.v. R. (Rape: Marital Exemption) [1992] 1 A.C. 599
105. Airedale NHS Trust v. Bland [1993] A.C. 789.
106. Grosz, Beatson and Duffy, Human Rights: the 1998 Act and the European Convention (Sweet & Maxwell, London, 2000), pp 4–51.
107. G.S. Morris, (1998) 27 I.L.J. 293 at 307.
108. [1997] I.R.L.R. 462.
109. Hepple, “Human Rights and Employment Law”, Amicus Curiae (8 June 1998) pp. 19–23, at p. 22. Note the problem of contracting out of convention rights. See discussion at p. 194 below.
110. HL Deb vol. 583, col. 811 (24 November 1997).
111. Sir William Wade, HL Deb n. 47 above, at p. 63.
112. This is the conclusion reached by Sir William Wade, HL Deb.
113. K. Ewing, “The Human Rights Act and Labour Law” (1998) I.L.J. 275, 286–287.
114. See Equal Opportunities Commission v. Secretary of State for Employment [1994] 1 W.L.R. 404
115. R. v. H.M. Inspector ofPollution ex p. Greenpeace Ltd. (No. 2) [1994] 4 All E.R. 329
116. R. v. Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, ex p. World Development Movement Ltd. [1995] 1 W.L.R. 386.
117. S. Spencer and I. Bynoe, A Human Rights Commission: The Options for Britain and Northern Ireland (Institute of Public Policy Research, London 1998).
118. S. Sedley, “What's to be Done about Human Rights?” (1995) 17 London Review of Books 13, 15.
119. Stedman v.UK (1997) 23 E.H.R.R. 168 (Commission decision).
120. See Kosiek v. Germany (1986) 9 E.H.R.R. 328
121. Neigel v. France (unreported) [1997] E.H.R.L.R. 424.
122. For a detailed discussion of these issues see G. Morris, 9 E.H.R.R. n. 45 above, at pp. 507–511
123. [1997] E.H.R.L.R. 424, at para. 43.
124. G. Morris, E.H.R.L.R. n. 45 above, at p. 511.
125. See Hepple, E.H.R.L.R. n. 7 above, at pp. 64–66.
126. See Belgium Linguistics Case (No. 2) (1968) 1 E.H.R.R. 252
127. Schuler-Zgraggen v. Switzerland (1995) 21 E.H.R.R. 404 (Article 14 was used successfully to challenge discriminatory or stereotypical assumptions).
128. See also S. Fredman, “Equality Issues” in B.S. Markesinis (ed.) The Impact ofthe Human Rights Bill on English Law (Clarendon Press, Oxford 1998) 111.
129. See Malone v.UK(1985) 7 E.H.R.R. 14.
130. Harris, O'Boyle and Warbrick, 7 E.H.R.R. n. 57 at p. 291.
131. Handyside v.UK (1976) 1 E.H.R.R. 737 at 753.
132. See “The Doctrine of the Margin of Appreciation under the European Convention on Human Rights: Its Legitimacy in Theory and Application in Practice” (1998) 19 Human Rights L.J. 1–36.
133. Lord Lester of Herne Hill Q.C., “The European Convention on Human Rights in the New Architecture of Europe: General Report”, Proceedings of the 8th International Colloquy on the European Convention on Human Rights (Council of Europe, 1995), 227 at p. 237.
134. Sir J. Laws, “The Limitations of Human Rights” [1998] P.L. 254, 258.
135. See R. Singh, M. Hunt and M. Demetriou, “Is There a Role for the ‘Margin of Appreciation’ in National Law after the Human Rights Act?” [1999] 1 E.H.R.L.R. 15.
136. See R.v.Ministry ofDefence, ex p. Smith [1996] Q.B. 517.
137. D. Feldman, “The Developing Scope of Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights” [1997] E.H.R.L.R. 265.
138. E.H.R.L.R., at p. 273.
139. (1992) Series A 251-B Para. 29.
140. (1979) 16 D.R. 166.
141. [1977] I.R.L.R. 395 (EAT).
142. Clayton and Pitt, “Dress Codes and Freedom of Expression” [1997] E.H.R.L.R. 54 at p.60.
143. See S. Deakin, E.H.R.L.R. n. 4 above, at p. 365
144. quoting from Iceland Frozen Foods Ltd.v. Jones [1983] I.C.R. 17.
145. Malone v.UK (1985) 7 E.H.R.R. 14
146. Halford v.UK (1997) 25 E.H.R.R. 523.
147. Niemietz v. Germany (1993) 16 E.H.R.R. 97.
148. Harris, O'Boyle and Warbrick, 16 E.H.R.R. n. 57 above, at p. 320.
149. Note also the effect of The Data Protection Act 1998 that comes into force in March 2000. Although this Act is based upon the EU Data Protection Directive, the Government has explicitly stated that the legislation draws upon Article 8 of the Convention. See Data Protection Cm. 3725 (1997) paras 1.6–1.7.
150. HL Deb. vol. 582 col. 1230 (3 November 1997).
151. The European Court has held that the deportation of an individual with AIDS/HIV to a country where he would receive no medical care is a violation of Article 3. See D v. United Kingdom (1997) 24 E.H.R.R. 423.
152. Case C-404/92P [1995] I.R.L.R. 320, ECJ.
153. See Watts, “The Legal Protection of HIV-Positive Health Care Workers” [1998] E.H.R.L.R. 302.
154. Saunders v. Scottish National Camps Association [1980] I.R.L.R. 174, (EAT).
155. See also Grant v. South West Trains, Case C-249/96. The ECJ held that the Article 141 (then Article 119) and the Equal pay Directive did not require an employer to provide the same free travel benefits to the partner of a same sex couple.
156. Dudgeon v.UK (1982) 4 E.H.R.R. 149.
157. See e.g. X and Y v. UK (1983) 5 E.H.R.R. 601.
158. See the House of Lords recent decision of Fitzpatrick v. Sterling Housing Association Ltd. (1999) 7 B.H.R.C. 200.
159. D. Feldman, (1997), 7 B.H.R.C. n. 95 above, at p. 273.
160. See R.v. Ministry of Defence, ex p. Smith [1996] Q.B. 517.
161. R. Wintemute “Lesbian and Gay Britons, the Two Europes, and the Bill of Rights Debate” (1997) 6 E.H.R.L.R. 466.
162. See Sutherland v. UK (1997) 24 E.H.R.R. (CD) 22. The applicant argued that Articles 14 and 8 had been violated. The Commission declared the application admissible.
163. Harris, O'Boyle and Warbrick, 24 E.H.R.R. n. 57 above at p. 370.
164. Arrowsmith v. UK (1978) 19 D.R. 5.
165. See S. Poulter, “The Rights of Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities” [1997] 3 E.H.R.L.R. 254.
166. (1990) 65 D.R. 41, 45.
167. [1978] Q.B. 36.
168. Ahmad v.UK (1981) 4 E.H.R.R. 126.
169. 4 E.H.R.R., para. 27.
170. S. Fredman, “Equality Issues” in B. Makesinis (ed.), The Impact of the Human Rights Bill on English Law (Clarendon Press, Oxford 1998).
171. Poulter, Ethnicity, Law and Human Rights (Clarendon Press, Oxford 1998) at p. 34.
172. (1997) 23 E.H.R.R. (CD) 168.
173. 23 E.H.R.R. (CD) p. 169.
174. In Case C84/94 UK v. Council [1996] I.R.L.R. 30, the ECJ struck down a proviso in the Working Time Directive which stipulated Sundays as the day of rest.
175. Harris, O'Boyle and Warbrick, I.R.L.R. n. 57 above.
176. (1996) 21 E.H.R.R. 205.
177. Compare Kosiek v. Germany (1986) 9 E.H.R.R. 328
178. Glasenapp v. Germany (1986) 9 E.H.R.R. 25.
179. [1999] I.R.L.R. 188.
180. I.R.L.R.
181. G. Morris, “The Political Activities of Local Government Workers and the European Convention of Human Rights” [1999] P.L. 211, 215–216.
182. Stevens v. UK (1986) 46 D. R. 247.
183. (1988) 56 D. R. 127.
184. (1989) 62 D.R. 151. (Doctor employed by Catholic hospital dismissed for making statements on abortion.)
185. Bowers and Lewis, “Whistleblowing: Freedom of Expression in the Workplace” [1996] E.H.R.L.R. 637.
186. But see Public Interest Disclosure Act 1998, s. 43J.
187. Public Interest Disclosure Act inserts Part 1VA into the Employment Rights Act 1996.
188. Employment Rights Act 1996, s. 43B.
189. Employment Rights Act 1996, s. 103A.
190. Employment Rights Act 1996, s. 47B.
191. Bowers and Lewis, Employment Rights Act 1996 n. 140 above.
192. See Jacobs and White, European Convention on Human Rights (Clarendon Press, Oxford 1996) p. 235.
193. See Jacubowski v. Germany (1995) 19 E.H.R.R. 64.
194. Ewing, 19 E.H.R.R. n. 10 above, at p. 279.
195. Plattform “Arzte fur das Leben” v. Austria (1985) 44 D.R. 65, 72.
196. National Union of Belgian Police v. Belgium Series (1975) 1 E.H.R.R. 578.
197. Swedish Engine Drivers' Union v. Sweden (1975) 1 E.H.R.R. 617.
198. 1 E.H.R.R.
199. (1975) 1 E.H.R.R. 578.
200. Harris, O'Boyle and Warbrick, 1 E.H.R.R. n. 57 above, at p. 429.
201. (1975) 1 E.H.R.R. 637.
202. Harris, O'Boyle and Warbrick, 1 E.H.R.R. n. 57 above, at p. 430.
203. Ewing, 1 E.H.R.R. n. 10 above, at p. 280
204. (1981) 4 E.H.R.R. 38.
205. (1993) 17 E.H.R.R. 193.
206. Harris, O'Boyle and Warbrick, 17 E.H.R.R. n. 57 above, at p. 427.
207. (1993) 16 E.H.R.R. 462.
208. (1996) 22 E.H.R.R. 409.
209. Council for Civil Service v.UK(1988) 10 E.H.R.R. 269.
210. Harris, O'Boyle and Warbrick, 1 E.H.R.R. n. 57 above, at p. 431.
211. Wilson and Palmer v. UK Applications Nos. 30668, 30671, 30678/96.
212. Associated Newspapers Ltd.v. Wilson [1995] 2 A.C. 454.
213. See comments by K. Ewing, (1998) I.L.J. 275, 291.