Gender as more than a dummy variable: Feminist approaches to discrimination

Review of Social Economy

Volumn 55, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 1-32

  Figart, Deborah M ^a  

^a RICHARD STOCKTON COLLEGE OF NEW JERSEY   (United States)

Author keywords

Discrimination; Employment; Feminist theory; Gender; Labor markets; Method; Wages

Indexed keywords

EID: 85011469871     PISSN: 00346764     EISSN: 14701162     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00346769700000022     Document Type: Article

References (126)

1. Acker, Joan (1988) “Class, Gender, and the Relations of Distribution,” Signs 13(3): 473-497.
2. Acker, Joan (1991) “Thinking About Wages: The Gendered Wage Gap in Swedish Banks,” Gender & Society 5(3): 390-407.
3. Albelda, Randy P. (1985) “Nice Work if You Can Get It: Segmentation of White 2nd Black Women Workers in the Post-War Period,” Review of Radical Political Economics 17(3): 72-85.
4. Anderson, Cynthia D. and Tomaskovic-Devey, Donald. (1995) “Patriarchal Pressures: An Exploration of Organizational Processes that Exacerbate and Erode Gender Earnings Inequality,” Work and Occupations 22(3): 328-356.
5. Aslanbeigui, Nahid, Pressman, Steven and Summerfield, Gale (eds.) (1994) Women in the Age of Economic Transformation: Gender Impact of Reforms in Post-Socialist and Developing Countries, New York: Routledge.
6. Badgett, M.V. Lee (1995a) “Gender, Sexuality, and Sexual Orientation: All in the Feminist Family?” Feminist Economics 1(1): 121-139.
7. Badgett, M.V. Lee (1995b) “The Wage Effects of Sexual Orientation Discrimination,” Industrial and Labor Relations Review 48(4): 726-739.
8. Badgett, M.V. Lee (1995c) “Affirmative Action in a Changing Legal and Economic Environment,” Industrial Relations 34(4): 489-506.
9. Badgett, M.V. Lee and Williams, Rhonda M. (1992) “The Economics of Sexual Orientation: Establishing a Research Agenda,” Feminist Studies 18(3): 649-657.
10. Badgett, M.V. Lee and Williams, Rhonda M. (1994) “The Changing Contours of Discrimination: Race, Gender, and Structulal Economic Change,” in Michael A. Bernstein and David E. Adler (eds.) Understanding American Economic Decline, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 313-329.
11. Bakker, Isiibella (1988) “Women’s Employment in Comparative Perspective,” in Jane Jenson, Elisabeth Hagen, and Ceallaigh Reddy (eds.) Feminization of the Labor Force: Paradoxes and Promises, New York: Oxford University Press: 17-44.
12. Baron, Ava (ed.) (1991) Work Engendered: Toward a New History of American Labor, Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
13. Baron, Jarnes N. (1991) “Organizational Evidence of Ascription in Labor Markets,” in Richard A. Cornwell and Phanindra V. Wunnava (eds.) New Approaches to Economic and Social Analyses of Discrimination, New York: Praeger: 113-143.
14. Beechey, Veronica. (1988) “Rethinking the Definition of Work: Gender and Work,” in Jane Jenson, Elisabeth Hagen, and Ceallaigh Reddy (eds.) Feminization of the Labor Force: Paradoxes and Promises, New York: Oxford University Press: 45-62.
15. Benería, Lourdes and Feldman, Shelley (eds.) (1992) Unequal Burden: Econonzic Crises, Persistent Poverty, and Women’s Work, Boulder: Westview Press.
16. Bergmann, Barbara R. (1986) The Economic Emergence of Women, New York: Basic Books.
17. Bergmann, Barbara R. (1987) “The Task of a Feminist Economics: A More Equitable Future,” in Christie Farnham (ed.) The Impact of Feminist Research in the Academy, Bloomington: Indiana University Press: 131-147.
18. Bergmann, Barbara R. (1995) “Probing the Opposition to Affirmative Action,” Gender, Work and Organization 2(2): 88-94.
19. Bergmann, Barbara R. (1996) In Defense of Affirmative Action, New York: Basic Books.
20. Bielby, William T. (1991) “The Structure and Process of Sex Segregation,” in Richard A. Cornwell and Phanindra V. Wunnava (eds.) New Approaches to Economic and Social Analyses of Discrimination, New York: Praeger: 97-112.
21. Bielby, William T. and Baron, James N. (1984) “A Woman’s Place is with Other Women: Sex Segregation Within Organizations,” in Barbara F. Reskin (ed.) Sex Segregation in the Workplace: Trends, Explanations, Remedies, Washington, DC: National Academy Press: 27-55.
22. Bielby, Denise and Bielby, William T. (1988) “She Works Hard for Her Money: Household Responsibilities and the Allocation of Work Effort,” American Journal of Sociology 93: 1031-1059.
23. Blankenship, Kim M. (1993) “Bringing Gender and Race In: U.S. Employment Discrimination Policy,” Gender & Society 7(2): 204-226.
24. Blau, Francine D. and Ferber, Marianne A. (1992) The Economics of Women, Men, and Work, Englewood-Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
25. Blau, Francine D. and Kahn, Lawrence M. (1992) “The Gender Earnings Gap: Learning from International Comparisons,” American Economic Review 82(2): 533-538.
26. Bridges, William P. and Nelson, Robert L. (1989) “Markets and Hierarchies: Organizational and Market Influences on Gender Inequality in a State Pay System,” American Journal of Sociology 95: 616-658.
27. Bruegel, Irene and Perrons, Diane (1995) “Where Do the Costs of Unequal Treatment for Women Fall?” Gender, Work and Organization 2(3): 110-121.
28. Buswell, Carol and Jenkins, Sarah (1994) “Equal Opportunities Policies, Employment and Patriarchy,” Gender, Work and Organization 1(2): 83-93.
29. Çağatay, Nilüfer and Özler, Sule (1995) “Feminization of the Labor Force: The Effects of Long-Tern Development and Structural Adjustment.” World Development 23(11): 1883-1894.
30. Çağatay, Nilüfer, Elson, Diane and Grown, Caren (eds.) (1995) World Development, Special Issue titled “Gender, Adjustment, and Macroeconomics” 23(1).
31. Cancian, Francesca M. (1992) “Feminist Science: Methodologies that Challenge Inequality,” Gender & Society 6(4): 623-642.
32. Chafetz, Janet Saltzman (1989) “Gender Equality: Toward a Theory of Change,” in Ruth A. Wallace (ed.) Feminism and Sociological Theory, Newbury Park: Sage: 135-157.
33. Cockburn, Cynthia (1991) In the Way of Women: Men’s Resistance to Sex Equality in Organizations, Ithaca: ILR Press.
34. Cohn, Samuel (1985) The Process of Occupational Sex-Typing, Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
35. Collins, Patricia Hill (1991) Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment, New York: Routledge.
36. Darity, William, Jr. (1989) “What’s Left of the Economics of Discrimination,” in Steven Shulman and William Darity, Jr. (eds.) The Question of Discrimination, Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press: 335-374.
37. Dugger, William M. (1987) “Power: An Institutional Framework of Analysis,” in Randy Albelda, Christopher Gunn, and William Waller (eds.) Alternatives to Economic Orthodoxy, Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe: 253-262.
38. Dugger, William M. (1994) “Institutionalism and Feminism,” in Janice Peterson and Doug Brown (eds.) The Economic Status of Women under Capitalism, Brookfield, VT: Edward Elgar: 1-18.
39. Emami, Zahreh (1993) “Challenges Facing Social Economics in the Twenty-First Century: A Feminist Perspective,” Review of Social Economy LII(4): 416-425.
40. England, Paula (1982) “The Failure of Human Capital Theory to Explain Occupational Sex Segregation,” The Journal of Human Resources 17(3): 358-370.
41. England, Paula (1984) “Wage Appreciation and Depreciation: A Test of Neoclassical Economic Explanations of Occupational Sex Segregation,” Social Forces 62(3): 726-749.
42. England, Paula (1993) “The Separative Self: Androcentric Bias in Neoclassical Assumptions,” in Marianne A. Ferber and Julie A. Nelson (eds.) Beyond Economic Man: Feminist Theory and Economics, Chicago: University of Chicago Press: 37-53.
43. Feldman, Shelley. (1992) “Crises, Poverty, and Gender Inequality: Current Themes and Issues,” in Lourdes Benería and Shelley Feldman (eds.) Unequal Burden: Economic Crises, Persistent Poverty, and Women’s Work, Boulder: Westview Press: 1-25.
44. Ferber, Marianne A. (1995) “The Study of Economics: A Feminist Critique,” American Economic Review 85(2): 357-361.
45. Ferber, Marianne A. and Green, Carole A. (1991) “Occupational Segregation and the Earnings Gap,” in Emily P. Hoffman (ed.) Essays on the Economics of Discrimination, Kalamazoo, Michigan: W.E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research: 145-165.
46. Ferber, Marianne A. and Nelson, Julie A. (eds.) (1993) Beyond Economic Man: Feminist Theory and Economics, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
47. Ferber, Marianne, Green, Carole A., and Spaeth, Joe L. (1986) “Work Power and Earnings of Women and Men,” American Economic Review 76(2): 53-56.
48. Figart, Deborah M. (1989) “Collective Bargaining and Career Development for Women in the Public Sector,” Journal of Collective Negotiations in the Public Sector 18(4): 301-313.
49. Figart, Deborah M. (1992) “Is Positive Action ‘Positive’? Collective Bargaining and Gender Relations in the Irish Civil Service,” Industrial Relations Journal: The European Journal of Analysis, Policy, and Practice 23(1): 37-51.
50. Figart, Deborah M. and Bergmann, Barbara R. (1989) Facilitating Women’s Occupational Integration, Washington, DC: Department of Labor, Commission on Workforce Quality and Labor Market Efficiency.
51. Figart, Deborah M. and Lapidus, June (1995) “A Gender Analysis of U.S. Labor Market Policies for the Working Poor,” Feminist Economics 1(3): 60-81.
52. Filer, Randall K. (1985) “Male-Female Wage Differences: The Importance of Compensating Differentials,” Industrial Relations 38(3): 426-437.
53. Filer, Randall K. (1989) “Occupational Segregation, Compensating Differentials, and Comparable Worth,” in Robert T. Michel, Heidi I. Hartmann, and Brigid O’Farrell (eds.) Pay Equity: Empirical Inquiries, Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press: 153-170.
54. Folbre, Nancy (1994) Who Pays for the Kids? Gender and the Structures of Constraint, New York: Routledge.
55. Fonow, Mary Margaret and Cook, Judith A. (eds.) (1991) Beyond Methodology: Feminist Scholarship as Lived Research, Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
56. Fudge, Judy and McDermott, Patricia (eds.) (1991) Just Wages: A Feminist Assessment of Pay Equity, Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
57. Glenn, Evelyn Nakano (1992) “From Servitude to Service Work: Historical Continuities in the Racial Division of Paid Reproductive Labor,” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 18(1): 1-43.
58. Glenn, Evelyn Nakano (1987) “Gender and the Family,” in Beth B. Hess and Myra Marx Feree (eds.) Analyzing Gender: A Handbook of Social Science Research, Newbury Park: Sage: 348-380.
59. Goldin, Claudia (1990) Understanding the Gender Gap: An Economic History of American Women, New York: Oxford University Press.
60. Gunderson, Morley (1989) “Male-Female Wage Differentials and Policy Responses,” Journal of Economic Literature 27 (March): 46-72.
61. Gunderson, Morley and Riddell, W. Craig (1992) “Comparable Worth: Canada’s Experience,” Contemporary Policy Issues X (July): 85-94.
62. Gustafsson, Siv S. (1995) “Economic Measurement,” in Edith Kuiper and Jolande Sap (eds.) Out of the Margin: Feminist Perspectives on Economics, New York: Routledge: 223-227.
63. Haignere, Lois, and Steinberg, Ronnie J. (1985) Three Village School District: Pay Equity Projle, Albany: Center for Women in Government.
64. Hansen, Karen Tranberg (1990) “Body Politics: Sexuality, Gender, and Domestic Service in Zambia,” Journal of Women’s History 2(1):120-142.
65. Hartmann, Heidi I. (1987) “Internal Labor Markets and Gender: A Case Study of Promotion,” in Clair Brown and Joseph A. Pechrnan (eds.) Gender in the Workplace, Washington, DC: Brookings Institution: 59-105.
66. Hartrnann, Heidi and Aaronson, Stephanie (1994) “Pay Equity and Women’s Wage Iincreases: Success in the States, A Model for the Nation,” Duke Journal of Gender Law and Policy (1): 69-87.
67. Horrell, Sara, Rubery, Jill and Burchell, Brendan (1989) “Unequal Jobs or Unequal Pay?” Industrial Relations Journal 20(3): 176-191.
68. Jacobs, Jerry A. and Steinberg, Ronnie J. (1990) “Compensating Differentials and the Male-Female Wage Gap: Evidence from the New York Comparable Worth Study,” Social Forces 69(2): 439-468.
69. Jacobsen, Joyce P. and Newman, Andrew E. (1995) “Cherchez les Femmes? How Labor Economists Study Women,” presented at International Association for Feminist Economics Conference, Tours, France.
70. Jennings, Ann L. (1993) “Public or Private? Institutional Economics and Feminism,” in Marianne A. Ferber and Julie A. Nelson (eds.) Beyond Economic Man: Feminist Theory and Economics, Chicago: University of Chicago Press: 111-130.
71. Kahn, Peggy and Meehan, Elizabeth (eds.) (1992) Equal Value/Comparable Worth in the UK and USA, New York: St. Martin’s Press.
72. Kahn, Shulamit (1995) “Women in the Economics Profession,” Journal of Economic Perspectives 9(4): 193-205.
73. Kelley, Maryellen (1982) “Discrimination in Seniority Systems: A Case Study,” Industrial and Labor Relations Review 36(1): 40-54.
74. Kessler-Hiuris, Alice (1990) A Woman’s Wage: Historical Meanings and Social Consequences, Lexington: University of Kentucky Press.
75. Kiefer, David and Phillips, Peter (1988) “Doubts Regarding the Human Capital Theory of Racial Inequality,” Industrial Relations 27(2): 251-262.
76. Killingsworth, Mark R. (1985) “The Economics of Comparable Worth: Analytical, Empirical, and Policy Questions,” in Heidi I. Hartmann (ed.) Comparable Worth: New Directions for Research, Washington, DC: National Academy Press: 86-115.
77. Kim, Marlene (1989) “Gender Bias in Compensation Structures: A Case Study of Its Historical Basis and Persistence,” Journal of Social Issues 45(4): 139-50.
78. Kim, Marlene (1996) “Salary Surveys: A Subjective Analysis,” presented at the Allied Social Science Associations Meetings, San Francisco, California.
79. King, May (1993) “Black Women’s Breakthrough into Clerical Work: An Occupational Tipping Model,” Journal of Economic Issues 27(4): 1097-1125.
80. King, May (1995) “Human Capital and Black Women’s Occupational Mobility,” Industrial Relations 34(2): 282-298.
81. Kuiper, Edith and Sap, Jolande (eds.) (1995) Out of the Margin: Feminist Perspectives on Economics. New York: Routledge.
82. Lapidus, June and Figart, Deborah M. (1994) “Comparable Worth as an Anti-Poverty Strategy: Evidence from the March 1992 CPS,” Review of Radical Political Economics 26(3): 1-10.
83. Lehrer, Susan (1987) Origins of Protective Labor Legislation for Women: 1905-1925, Albany: State University of New York Press.
84. Matthaei, Julie (1995) “The Sexual Division of Labor, Sexuality, and Lesbian/Gay Liberation: Toward a Marxist-Feminist Analysis of Sexuality in U.S. Capitalism,” Review of Radical Political Economics 27(1): 1-37.
85. McCrate, Elaine (1987) “Trade, Merger and Employment: Economic Theory on Marriage,” Review of Radical Political Economics 19(1): 73-89.
86. McCrate, Elaine and Leete, Laura (1994) “Black-White Wage Differences among Young Women,” Industrial Relations 33(2): 168-183.
87. Murgatroyd, Linda (1982) “Gender and Occupational Stratification,” Sociological Review, 30(4): 574-602.
88. Nelson, Julie A. (1993) “Gender and Economic Ideologies,” Review of Social Economy. LI(3): 287-301.
89. Nelson, Julie A. (1995a) “Feminism and Economics,” Journal of Economic Perspectives. 9(2): 131-148.
90. Nelson, Julie A. (1995b) “Economic Theory and Feminist Theory,” in Edith Kuiper and Jolande Sap (eds.) Out of the Margin: Feminist Perspectives on Economics, 120-125. New York: Routledge: 120-125.
91. Oaxaca, Ronald (1973) “Male Female Wage Differentials in Urban Labor Markets,” International Economic Review 14(3): 693-709.
92. Pfeffer, Jeffrey and Konrad, Alison K. (1991) “The Effects of Individual Power on Earnings,” Work and Occupations 18(4): 385-414.
93. Polachek, Solomon W. (1995) “Human Capital and the Gender Earnings Gap: A Response to Feminist Critiques,” in Edith Kuiper and Jolande Sap (eds.) Out of the Margin: Feminist Perspectives on Economics, New York: Routledge: 61-79.
94. Power, Marilyn (1994) “Achieving Pay Equity for Child Care Workers,” presented at International Association for Feminist Economics Conference, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.
95. Power, Marilyn and Rosenberg, Sam (1995) “Race, Class, and Occupational Mobility: Black and White Women in Service Work in the United States,” Feminist Economics 1(3): 40-59.
96. Pyle, Jean Larson (1990) The State and Women in the Economy: Lessons from Sex Discrimination in the Republic of Ireland. Albany: State University of New York Press.
97. Redmount, Esther (1995) “Toward a Feminist Econometrics,” in Edith Kuiper and Jolande Sap (eds.) Out of the Margin: Feminist Perspectives on Economics, New York: Routledge: 216-222.
98. Reinharz, Shulamit (1992) Feminist Methods in Social Research, New York: Oxford University Press.
99. Renwick, Trudi J. and Bergmann, Barbara R. (1993) “A Budget-Based Definition of Poverty: With An Application to Single-Parent Families,” The Journal of Human Resources 28(1): 1-24.
100. Reskin, Barbara F. (1984) Sex Segregation in the Workplace: Trends, Explanations, Remedies, Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
101. Reskin, Barbara F. and Hartmann, Heidi (1986) Women’s Work, Men’s Work: Sex Segregation on the Job, Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
102. Reskin, Barbara F. and Roos, Patricia A. (1990) Job Queues, Gender Queues, Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
103. Rose, Sonya (1992) Limited Livelihoods: Gender and Class in Nineteenth-Century England, Berkeley: University of California Press.
104. Rubery, Jill (1978) “Structured Labour Markets, Worker Organisation and Low Pay,” Cambridge Journal of Economics 2(1): 17-36.
105. Rubery, Jill (1992) “Pay, Gender and the Social Dimension to Europe,” British Journal of Industrial Relations 30(4): 605-621.
106. Seiz, Janiat A. (1991) “The Bargaining Approach and Feminist Methodology,” Review of Radical Political Economics 23(1 & 2): 22-29.
107. Seiz, Janiat A. (1995) “Bargaining Models, Feminism, and Institutionalism,” Journal of Economic Issues 29(2): 609-618.
108. Sorensen, Elaine (1989) “The Wage Effects of Occupational Sex Composition: A Review and New Findings,” in M. Anne Hill and Mark R. Killingsworth (eds.) Comparable Worth: Analyses and Evidence, Ithaca, N.Y.: ILR Press: 57-79.
109. Sorensen, Elaine (1994) Comparable Worth: Is It a Worthy Policy? Princeton: Princeton University Press.
110. Spalter-Roth, Roberta, Hartmann, Heidi and Collins, Nancy (1994) “What Do Unions Do for Women?” in Sheldon Friedman, Richard W. Hurd, Rudolph A. Oswald, and Ronald L. Seeber (eds.) Restoring the Promise of American Labor Law, Ithaca: ILR Press: 193-206.
111. Standing, Guy (1989) “Global Feminization through Flexible Labor,” World Development 17(7): 1077-1095.
112. Steinberg, Ronnie (1982) Wages and Hours: Labor and Reform in Twentieth-Century America, New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.
113. Steinberg, Ronnie (1990) “Social Construction of Skill: Gender, Power, and Comparable Worth,” Work and Occupations 17(4): 449-482.
114. Steinberg, Ronnie (1996, forthcoming) “Advocacy Research for Feminist Policy Objectives: Experiences with Comparable Worth,” in Heidi Gottfried (ed.) Bridging Theory and Practice, Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
115. Strassmann, Diana L. (1994) “Feminist Thought and Economics; Or, What Do the Visigoths Know?” American Economic Review 84(2): 153-158.
116. Strassmann, Diana and Polanyi, Livia (1995) “The Economist as Storyteller: What the Texts Reveal,” in Edith Kuiper and Jolande Sap (eds.) Out of the Margin: Feminist Perspectives on Economics, New York: Routledge: 129-150.
117. Strober, Myra (1994) “Rethinking Feminist Economics Through a Feminist Lens.” American Economic Review 84(2): 143-147.
118. Strober, Myra H. and Arnold, Carolyn L. (1987) “The Dynamics of Occupational Segregation among Bank Tellers,” in Clair Brown and Joseph A. Pechrnan (eds.) Gender in the Workplace, Washington, DC: Brookings Institution: 107-157.
119. Strober, Myra H., Gerlach-Downie, Suzanne, and Yeager, Kenneth E. (1995) “Child Care Centers as Workplaces,” Feminist Economics 1(1): 93-120.
120. Tienda, Marta, Smith, Shelley A. and Ortiz, Vilma (1987) “Industrial Restructuring, Gender Segregation, and Sex Differences in Earnings,” American Sociological Review 52(2): 195-210.
121. Treiman, Donald J. and Hartmann, Heidi I. (eds.) (1981) Women, Work, and Wages: Equal Pay for Jobs of Equal Value, Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
122. Van Wagner, Marcia J. (1993) “Are Men’s Jobs Becoming Women’s Jobs? Substitution and Segmentation in the U.S. Labor Force,” Review of Radical Political Economics 25(2): 75-84.
123. Williams, Rhonda (1993) “Race, Deconstruction, and the Emergent Agenda of Feminist Economic Theory,” in Marianne A. Ferber and Julie A. Nelson (eds.) Beyond Economic Man: Feminist Theory and Economics, Chicago: University of Chicago Press: 144-153.
124. Williams, Rhonda (1987) “Capital, Competition, and Discrimination: A Reconsideration of Racial Earnings Inequality,” Review of Radical Political Economics 19(2): 1-15.
125. Woody, Bette (1992) Black Women in the Workplace: Impacts of Structural Change in the Economy, New York: Greenwood Press.
126. Woolley, Frances R. (1993) “The Feminist Challenge to Neoclassical Economics,” Cambridge Journal of Economics 17: 485-500.