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The World Conservation Union's 2000 Red List of Threatened Species reveals that 24 per cent of mammals, 12 per cent of birds, 25 per cent of reptiles, 20 per cent of amphibians, 30 per cent of fish, and 16 per cent of conifers (and an unknown number of invertebrate species and plants) are threatened. IUCN, Red List of Threatened Species (2000).
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(2000)
The World Conservation Union's 2000 Red List of Threatened Species reveals that 24 per cent of mammals, 12 per cent of birds, 25 per cent of reptiles, 20 per cent of amphibians, 30 per cent of fish, and 16 per cent of conifers (and an unknown number of invertebrate species and plants) are threatened.
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2
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UN Doc. UNEP/BIO.Div/N7-INC.5/4
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in T. O'Riordan and S. Stoll-Kleeman (eds.), Biodiversity, Sustainability and Human Communities
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T. Lovejoy, ‘Biodiversity: Threats and Challenges’, in T. O'Riordan and S. Stoll-Kleeman (eds.), Biodiversity, Sustainability and Human Communities (2002).
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‘Biodiversity: Threats and Challenges’ note
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CBD Secretariat, ‘Biodiversity: Threats and Challenges’ note 3.
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CBD Secretariat
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(1968); P. Weil, ‘Towards Relative Normativity in International Law’, 77 AJIL
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L. Henkin, How Nations Behave: Law and Foreign Policy (1968); P. Weil, ‘Towards Relative Normativity in International Law’, (1983) 77 AJIL 413.
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(1978) 1302 UNTS 217.
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D.Magraw, ‘Legal Treatment ofDeveloping Countries:Differential, Contextual, and AbsoluteNorms’, (1990) 1 Colorado Journal of International Environmental Law and Policy 70. See also A. Halvorssen, Equality Among Unequals in International Environmental Law: Differential Treatment for Developing Countries (1999); A. Gillespie, International Environmental Law, Policy, and Ethics (1997).
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P. Sands, ‘Environmental Protection in the 21st Century’, in R. Revesz, P. Sands, and R. Stewart (eds.), Environmental Law, the Economy, and Sustainable Development (2000). See also A. Boyle, ‘The Rio Convention on Biological Diversity’, in M. Bowman and C. Redgwell (eds.), International Law and the Conservation of Biological Diversity
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Participation was seen as dependent on ‘the ability to accommodate differences between countries with different values, ecological and geographical conditions, economic capacities, and historic contributions to the problems that are being addressed’. P. Sands, ‘Environmental Protection in the 21st Century’, in R. Revesz, P. Sands, and R. Stewart (eds.), Environmental Law, the Economy, and Sustainable Development (2000). See also A. Boyle, ‘The Rio Convention on Biological Diversity’, in M. Bowman and C. Redgwell (eds.), International Law and the Conservation of Biological Diversity (1996).
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Participation was seen as dependent on ‘the ability to accommodate differences between countries with different values, ecological and geographical conditions, economic capacities, and historic contributions to the problems that are being addressed’.
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38
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(2002) 13 Colorado Journal of International Environmental Law and Policy 473; J. Tasioulas, ‘International Law and the Limits of Fairness’, 13 EJIL
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See, e.g., M. Weisslitz, ‘Rethinking the Equitable Principle of Common But Differentiated Responsibility’, (2002) 13 Colorado Journal of International Environmental Law and Policy 473; J. Tasioulas, ‘International Law and the Limits of Fairness’, (2002) 13 EJIL 993.
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‘Rethinking the Equitable Principle of Common But Differentiated Responsibility’
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Weisslitz, M.1
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‘Rethinking the Equitable Principle of Common But Differentiated Responsibility’ note
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Boyle, ‘Rethinking the Equitable Principle of Common But Differentiated Responsibility’ note 30.
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Boyle1
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41
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85011461594
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OneexceptionintheBiodiversityConventionisArt. 8(j),whichcoverstheinvolvementof indigenouspeoples and the ‘equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of such knowledge, innovations, and practices’. Companies may be granted access to natural resources in the context of national regulatory frameworks implementing treaties. note
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McGraw, OneexceptionintheBiodiversityConventionisArt. 8(j),whichcoverstheinvolvementof indigenouspeoples and the ‘equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of such knowledge, innovations, and practices’. Companies may be granted access to natural resources in the context of national regulatory frameworks implementing treaties. note 37.
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McGraw1
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42
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85011461583
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If the European Union cuts its carbon emissions, and transfers significant funding for carbon abatement projects in developing countries, while most developing countries are permitted to increase their emissions (but by a much smaller net amount), the EU demonstrates its commitment and enables developing countries to expand.
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If through the Montreal Protocol China obtains help with redesigning its industrial manufacturing to use substitutes forCFCs,it canleapfrog technologically,createnewmarketsdomesticallyandinternationally,and preserve the ozone layer. If the European Union cuts its carbon emissions, and transfers significant funding for carbon abatement projects in developing countries, while most developing countries are permitted to increase their emissions (but by a much smaller net amount), the EU demonstrates its commitment and enables developing countries to expand.
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If through the Montreal Protocol China obtains help with redesigning its industrial manufacturing to use substitutes forCFCs,it canleapfrog technologically,createnewmarketsdomesticallyandinternationally,and preserve the ozone layer.
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44
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CBD Conference of Parties note
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Wood et al., CBD Conference of Parties note 6.
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Wood1
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Group Functioning and Community Forestry in South Asia note
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Jasanoff, Group Functioning and Community Forestry in South Asia note 49.
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http://www. biodiv.org/programmes/socio-eco/benefit/decisions.asp. See also CBD Secretariat, ‘Intellectual Property Rights and Transfer of Technologies’, UN Doc UNEP/CBD/COP/2/17, 6 Oct. 1995; CBD Secretariat, ‘Access to Genetic Resources’, UN Doc UNEP/CBD/COP/3/20, 5 Oct.
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At least 92 CoP decisions touch on genetic resources in some way: CBD Secretariat, http://www. biodiv.org/programmes/socio-eco/benefit/decisions.asp. See also CBD Secretariat, ‘Intellectual Property Rights and Transfer of Technologies’, UN Doc UNEP/CBD/COP/2/17, 6 Oct. 1995; CBD Secretariat, ‘Access to Genetic Resources’, UN Doc UNEP/CBD/COP/3/20, 5 Oct. 1996.
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At least 92 CoP decisions touch on genetic resources in some way: CBD Secretariat
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Linkages Report on CoP-5, no. 154, at http://www.iisd.ca/ linkages/vol09
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Earth Negotiations Bureau, Linkages Report on CoP-5, 2000, vol. 9, no. 154, at http://www.iisd.ca/ linkages/vol09.
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Earth Negotiations Bureau
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Linkages Reports on CoP-4, 1998, vol. 9, no. 96; CoP-5, 2000, vol. 9, no. 154; CoP-6, at http://www.iisd.ca/linkages/vol09
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Earth Negotiations Bureau, Linkages Reports on CoP-4, 1998, vol. 9, no. 96; CoP-5, 2000, vol. 9, no. 154; CoP-6, 2002, vol. 9, no. 239 at http://www.iisd.ca/linkages/vol09.
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Earth Negotiations Bureau, Linkages Report on Co.P-5, 2000, vol. 9, no. 154, at http://www.iisd.ca/ linkages/vol09.
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UN Department for Policy Coordination and Sustainable Development, Financial Flow Statistics: Adjustment forMonitoring the Financing of Agenda 21 (1996); Global Environment Fund, Annual Report (1995).
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66
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(such as $170 million in 1996 and $472 million in 1998), because of ‘normal fluctuations of the funding cycle’ due to the complexities of government-bank negotiations and the biodiversity issue. Large projects can take time to show up in the figures. Global Environment Fund, Biodiversity Program Study
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There are great fluctuations in funding on an annual basis (such as $170 million in 1996 and $472 million in 1998), because of ‘normal fluctuations of the funding cycle’ due to the complexities of government-bank negotiations and the biodiversity issue. Large projects can take time to show up in the figures. Global Environment Fund, Biodiversity Program Study (2001).
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There are great fluctuations in funding on an annual basis
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70
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(such as numbers of guards hired, amount of land newly sequestered, and so on) than to social and economic development. B. Cracknell, Evaluating Development Aid: Issues, Problems and Solutions
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Measures of funding outcomes are more easily linked to geographical and bureaucratic progress (such as numbers of guards hired, amount of land newly sequestered, and so on) than to social and economic development. B. Cracknell, Evaluating Development Aid: Issues, Problems and Solutions (2000).
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Measures of funding outcomes are more easily linked to geographical and bureaucratic progress
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Genetic and biological material exploitation may have economies of scale, and may be more efficient and easier to look for, if it is heavily concentrated in a small area. note
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Ten Kate and Laird, ‘Modern Biotechnology’ note 82.
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Egler, ‘Access to Genetic Resources’ note 88.
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Henne and Fakir, ‘Access to Genetic Resources’ note 93.
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The resulting capital flows, if any, are to be split between the government and each local community according to what it is judged to have contributed, but always on the government's terms. ‘Synthesis of Case Studies on Benefit-Sharing’, UNEP/CBD/COP/4/Inf.7, 4May
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Similarly, in Ecuador the Inter-American Development Bank and national NGOs are cataloguing traditional knowledge of biodiversity into a heavily restricted database to create a market for the knowledge. The resulting capital flows, if any, are to be split between the government and each local community according to what it is judged to have contributed, but always on the government's terms. ‘Synthesis of Case Studies on Benefit-Sharing’, UNEP/CBD/COP/4/Inf.7, 4May 1998, 4.
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Similarly, in Ecuador the Inter-American Development Bank and national NGOs are cataloguing traditional knowledge of biodiversity into a heavily restricted database to create a market for the knowledge. note
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Sturm, The Commerce of Ecology note 92.
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P. Steinberg, Environmental Leadership in Developing Countries (2000), mapped the flows of ideas about biodiversity into Costa Rica and Bolivia from around the world by recording the location and number of newspaper articles referring to foreign experiences in conserving biodiversity.W. Cronon, Nature'sMetropolis, explored the flows of capital during themid-19th century in the north-eastern United States to invest in the building industry in Chicago.
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To some extent, the geography discipline-as has the industrial ecology field-has already engaged in work to map resource-flows throughout the world. P. Steinberg, Environmental Leadership in Developing Countries (2000), mapped the flows of ideas about biodiversity into Costa Rica and Bolivia from around the world by recording the location and number of newspaper articles referring to foreign experiences in conserving biodiversity.W. Cronon, Nature'sMetropolis (1991), explored the flows of capital during themid-19th century in the north-eastern United States to invest in the building industry in Chicago.
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To some extent, the geography discipline-as has the industrial ecology field-has already engaged in work to map resource-flows throughout the world.
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(1996)379Nature,718;B.Walker,A.Kinzig,andJ.Langridge,'PlantAttributeDiversity,Resilience, and Ecosystem Function:TheNature and Significance ofDominantand Minor Species’, 2(2) Ecosystems
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