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Volumn 46, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 586-634

Implementation of the immigration (carriers’ liability) act 1987: Privatising immigration functions at the expense of international obligations?

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EID: 85011433650     PISSN: 00205893     EISSN: 14716895     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0020589300060814     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (40)

References (147)
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    • Further, Art.27 reads: Although the 1969 Vienna Convention postdates the 19S1 Geneva Convention, the former's provisions can be seen as applicable to the latter in so far as they are declaratory of customary international law.
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    • Art.l4(l) guarantees the “right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution”. The Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action adopted by the World Conference on Human Rights reaffirmed this right in June 1993 (UN Doc.A/CONF.157/24 (part 1) 13 Oct. 1993).
    • (1949) 49 A.J.I.L. Supp. 127. Art.l4(l) guarantees the “right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution”. The Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action adopted by the World Conference on Human Rights reaffirmed this right in June 1993 (UN Doc.A/CONF.157/24 (part 1) 13 Oct. 1993).
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    • Status of the Universal Declaration in Customary International Law
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    • See generally “Status of the Universal Declaration in Customary International Law”, International Law Association Report of the 66th Conference, Buenos Aires (1995), pp. 537–549.
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    • International Law Association, A.J.I.L., p.547.
    • A.J.I.L. , pp. 547
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    • General Assembly Resolutions Revisited (Forty Years Later)
    • (U.N.G.A. Res.2312(XXII).) For the status of G.A. resolutions generally see
    • (U.N.G.A. Res.2312(XXII).) For the status of G.A. resolutions generally see B. Sloan, “General Assembly Resolutions Revisited (Forty Years Later)” (1987) 58 B.Y.I.L. 39.
    • (1987) B.Y.I.L. , vol.58 , pp. 39
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    • B.Y.I.L., p.143.
    • B.Y.I.L. , pp. 143
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    • non-refoulement has now come to be characterized as a peremptory norm of international law
    • (Geneva Report of UNHCR 40 UNGAOR Supp. (No.12), p.6, UN Doc.A/40/12 (1985). UNHCR) conclusion 5 (“[non-refoule-ment] is imperative in regard to refugees. as a rule of jus cogens”).
    • Report of UNHCR 40 UNGAOR Supp. (No.12), p.6, UN Doc.A/40/12 (1985) (“non-refoulement has now come to be characterized as a peremptory norm of international law”). Cartagena Declaration on Refugees (Geneva, UNHCR, 1984) conclusion 5 (“[non-refoule-ment] is imperative in regard to refugees. as a rule of jus cogens”).
    • (1984) Cartagena Declaration on Refugees
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    • and
    • Torture Committee cases Matumbo v. Switzerland (1994) H.R.LJ. 164–168 and
    • (1994) H.R.LJ. , pp. 164-168
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    • 3, 122 and
    • (1994) 11.H.R.R. 3, 122–129 and
    • (1994) H.R.R. , pp. 11-129
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    • and
    • Khan v. Canada (1994) H.R.LJ. 426–432 and
    • (1994) H.R.LJ. , pp. 426-432
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    • (1995) 21.H.R.R. 2, 337–347
    • (1995) H.R.R. , pp. 21-347
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    • Non-Refoulement and ‘Humanitarian Refugees’: Customary International Law or Wishful Thinking?
    • K. Hailbronner, “Non-Refoulement and ‘Humanitarian Refugees’: Customary International Law or Wishful Thinking?” (1986) 26 VaJ.l.L. 857.
    • (1986) VaJ.l.L. , vol.26 , pp. 857
    • Hailbronner, K.1
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    • Drohende Folterung als Asylgrund und Grenze für Aus-lieferung und Ausweisung
    • J. Frowein and R. Kühner, “Drohende Folterung als Asylgrund und Grenze für Aus-lieferung und Ausweisung” (1983) 43 Z.a.¨.R.V. 537, 558.
    • (1983) Z.a.¨.R.V. , vol.43
    • Frowein, J.1    Kühner, R.2
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    • Custom as a Source of International Law
    • See e.g.
    • See e.g. M. Akehurst, “Custom as a Source of International Law” (1974–1975) 47 B.Y.B.I.L. 1, 38–42;
    • (1974) B.Y.B.I.L. , vol.47 , Issue.1 , pp. 38-42
    • Akehurst, M.1
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    • The History of the Comprehensive Plan of Action
    • S. A. Bronée, “The History of the Comprehensive Plan of Action” (1993) 5 IJ.Ref.L. 534;
    • (1993) IJ.Ref.L. , vol.5 , pp. 534
    • Bronée, S.A.1
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    • The Origins and Effects of ‘Humane Deterrence’ Policies in SouthEast Asia
    • (in G. Loescher and L. Monahan (Eds)), p.
    • D. McNamara, “The Origins and Effects of ‘Humane Deterrence’ Policies in SouthEast Asia”, in G. Loescher and L. Monahan (Eds), Refugees and International Relations (1989), p.123.
    • (1989) Refugees and International Relations , pp. 123
    • McNamara, D.1
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    • R. v. Chief Immigration Officer, ex p. Bibi [1976] 1 W.L.R. 979, 984.
    • (1976) W.L.R. , vol.1
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    • See also, 207;
    • See also R. v. Home Secretary, ex p. Bhajan Singh [1976] Q.B. 198, 207;
    • (1976) Q.B. , pp. 198
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    • Amies v. Inner London Education Authority [1977] 2 All E.R. 100, 103.
    • (1977) All E.R. , vol.2
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    • Garland v. British Rail [1983] 2 A.C. 751, 771.
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    • See also (High Court of the Justiciary)
    • See also Mortensen v. Peters 1906 14 S.L.T. 227–235 (High Court of the Justiciary)
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    • where Lord Atkin ruled: “International law has no validity save in so far as its principles are accepted and adopted by our domestic law. On any judicial issue [the courts] seek to ascertain what the relevant rule is and, having found it, they will treat it as incorporated into the domestic law, so far as it is not inconsistent with rules enacted by statutes.”
    • Chung Chi Cheung v. R. [1939] A.C. 160, 167–168 where Lord Atkin ruled: “International law has no validity save in so far as its principles are accepted and adopted by our domestic law. On any judicial issue [the courts] seek to ascertain what the relevant rule is and, having found it, they will treat it as incorporated into the domestic law, so far as it is not inconsistent with rules enacted by statutes.”
    • (1939) A.C. , vol.160 , pp. 167-168
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    • For exposition of the doctrines of “incorporation” and “transformation” concerning the place of international law in English courts see
    • For exposition of the doctrines of “incorporation” and “transformation” concerning the place of international law in English courts see Lord Denning MR in Trendtex Trading Corporation v. Central Bank of Nigeria [1977] Q.B. 529, 553–554.
    • (1977) Q.B. , vol.529 , pp. 553-554
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    • 761762. He also warned against incorporation of the Convention “by the back door”.
    • R. v. Secretary of State for the Home Department, ex p. Brind [1991] 1 A.C. 696, 761762. He also warned against incorporation of the Convention “by the back door”.
    • (1991) A.C. , vol.1 , pp. 696
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    • 990. (This case went on to the European Court of Human Rights under the name of Vilvara-jah, infra n.219.)
    • R. v. Secretary of State for the Home Department, ex p. Sivakumaran [1988] 1 A.C. 958, 990. (This case went on to the European Court of Human Rights under the name of Vilvara-jah, infra n.219.)
    • (1988) A.C. , vol.1 , pp. 958
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    • Home Office Sub-Committee on Race Relations and Immigration (1984–1985) H.C. 72ii
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    • 532. In this case the rejection of three asylum applications was upheld but that of a fourth, by Mr Musisi, was quashed on the grounds that there had been a defect in the decision-making process.
    • R. v. Home Secretary, ex p. Bugdaycay [1987] 1 A.C. 514, 532. In this case the rejection of three asylum applications was upheld but that of a fourth, by Mr Musisi, was quashed on the grounds that there had been a defect in the decision-making process.
    • (1987) A.C. , vol.1 , pp. 514
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    • R. v. Secretary of State for the Home Department, ex p. Chahal [1995] 1 W.L.R. 526.
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    • Judge Neill ruled
    • that “notwithstanding Article 33(2) of the Convention of 1951 the Secretary of State ought to balance the gravity of the risk to national security if the person concerned were to remain against all the other circumstances, including any compassionate circumstances and any likely risk of persecution if that person were deported”. Infra n.223 for ruling by the European Court of Human Rights on this case.
    • Judge Neill ruled, W.L.R., p.545, that “notwithstanding Article 33(2) of the Convention of 1951 the Secretary of State ought to balance the gravity of the risk to national security if the person concerned were to remain against all the other circumstances, including any compassionate circumstances and any likely risk of persecution if that person were deported”. Infra n.223 for ruling by the European Court of Human Rights on this case.
    • W.L.R. , pp. 545
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    • English Law and the European Convention on Human Rights
    • esp. 599–605;
    • P. J. Duffy, “English Law and the European Convention on Human Rights” (1980) 291 C.L.Q. 585, esp. 599–605;
    • (1980) C.L.Q. , vol.291 , pp. 585
    • Duffy, P.J.1
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    • The European Convention on Human Rights, Customary International Law and the Constitution
    • A. J. Cunningham, “The European Convention on Human Rights, Customary International Law and the Constitution” (1994) 431 C.L.Q. 537.
    • (1994) C.L.Q. , vol.431 , pp. 537
    • Cunningham, A.J.1
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    • Diplock LJ in Salomon v. Commrs of Customs and Excise [1967] 2 Q.B. 116, 143.
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    • Arts. 5(1)(f) and 16 both specifically refer to aliens.
    • (Emphasis added.) Arts. 5(1)(f) and 16 both specifically refer to aliens.
    • Emphasis added.) Arts
  • 136
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    • The Third Party Applicability or ‘Drittwirkung’ of the European Convention on Human Rights
    • (See, in F. Matscher and H. Petzold (Eds))
    • See E. A. Alkema, “The Third Party Applicability or ‘Drittwirkung’ of the European Convention on Human Rights”, in F. Matscher and H. Petzold (Eds), Protecting Human Rights: The European Dimension (1988), pp. 33–45;
    • (1988) Protecting Human Rights: The European Dimension , pp. 33-45
    • Alkema, E.A.1
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    • The European Convention on Human Rights and the Notion of an Implied Right to de facto Asylum
    • who writes that “there is no right to asylum de jure” but “on the other hand, the discretion concerning negative decisions—like rejection, expulsion, extradition and refoulement of asylum-seekers—is restricted”.
    • T. Einarsen, “The European Convention on Human Rights and the Notion of an Implied Right to de facto Asylum” (1990) 2 I.J.Ref.L. 364, who writes that “there is no right to asylum de jure” but “on the other hand, the discretion concerning negative decisions—like rejection, expulsion, extradition and refoulement of asylum-seekers—is restricted”.
    • (1990) I.J.Ref.L. , vol.2 , pp. 364
    • Einarsen, T.1
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    • Applying the European Convention on Human Rights to Extradition: Opening Pandora's Box?
    • See also, 757.
    • See also C. Van den Wyngaert, “Applying the European Convention on Human Rights to Extradition: Opening Pandora's Box?” (1990) 391.C.L.Q. 757.
    • (1990) C.L.Q. , vol.391
    • Van den Wyngaert, C.1
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    • The Commission found that the applicants had been “refused entry by the only State of which they were citizens—the United Kingdom [their having been citizens of the UK and colonies before the independence of Kenya and Uganda]—they had no other country to which they could make a claim for admission. Even if the United Kingdom did not directly cause the hardship [resulting from actions by the Kenyan and Ugandan governments which deprived Asians of their livelihood] they exposed the applicants to the possibility of it occurring” (para.206). The Commission also found violations of Arts.8 and 14 of the Convention.
    • (1994) 15 H.R.LJ. 215–232. The Commission found that the applicants had been “refused entry by the only State of which they were citizens—the United Kingdom [their having been citizens of the UK and colonies before the independence of Kenya and Uganda]—they had no other country to which they could make a claim for admission. Even if the United Kingdom did not directly cause the hardship [resulting from actions by the Kenyan and Ugandan governments which deprived Asians of their livelihood] they exposed the applicants to the possibility of it occurring” (para.206). The Commission also found violations of Arts.8 and 14 of the Convention.
    • (1994) H.R.LJ. , vol.15 , pp. 215-232
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    • Extradition and Expulsion under the European Convention on Human Rights: Reflections on the Soering Case
    • (See, in J. O'Reilly (Ed.))
    • See M. O'Boyle, “Extradition and Expulsion under the European Convention on Human Rights: Reflections on the Soering Case”, in J. O'Reilly (Ed.), Human Rights and Constitutional Law (1992), pp. 104–106;
    • (1992) Human Rights and Constitutional Law , pp. 104-106
    • O'Boyle, M.1


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