Chemical weapons in the sudan: Allegations and evidence

Nonproliferation Review

Volumn 6, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 115-136

  Barletta, Michael ^a  

^a MONTEREY INSTITUTE OF INTERNATIONAL STUDIES   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 85010510261     PISSN: 10736700     EISSN: 17461766     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10736709808436741     Document Type: Article

References (260)

1. For a detailed exposition of Sudan’s response to U.S. allegations regarding Shifa, see News Conference with Mahdi Ibrahim Mahammad, Sudanese Ambassador, The National Press Club, Washington, D.C., September 2,1998.
2. William J. Clinton, “Address to the Nation by the President,” The White House, Office of the Press Secretary, August 20, 1998 (http://www.whitehouse.gov/WH/New/html/19980821-19043.html).
3. Russell Watson and John Barry, “Our Target Was Terror,” Newsweek, August 31, 1998, p. 28.
4. Richard J. Newman, “America Fights Back,” U.S. News & World Report, August 31,1998, p. 42.
5. M. J. Zuckerman, “Terrorism War Spawns Silence,” USA Today, September 23,1998, p. 1.
6. “Most JCS Members Not Consulted Before Afghanistan, Sudan Bombings,” Associated Press, October 6, 1998.
7. Watson and Barry, “Our Target Was Terror,” p. 27.
8. Newman, “America Fights Back,” p. 42.
9. Watson and Barry, “Our Target Was Terror,” p. 28.
10. Newman, “America Fights Back,” p. 42.
11. Tim Weiner and James Risen, “Decision to Strike Factory in Sudan Based on Surmise,” The New York Times, September 21,1998, p. A1.
12. Watson and Barry, “Our Target Was Terror,” p. 28.
13. Newman, “America Fights Back,” p. 42.
14. Seymour M. Hersh, “Annals of National Security: The Missiles of August,” The New Yorker, October 12, 1998, 35-36.
15. The Department of Defense declined to provide an authoritative account of the number of Tomahawks used in the attack on Shifa, and press reports range from six up to 20. See David A. Fulghum, “Secrecy about Raids Hints More to Come,” Aviation Week & Space Technology, August 31, 1998, p. 30.
16. Newman, “America Fights Back,” p. 38.
17. Watson and Barry, “Our Target Was Terror,” 24-26.
18. Barbara Starr, “More Questions than Answers,” ABC News, August 26, 1998 (http://www.abcnews.com:80/).
19. Newman, “America Fights Back,” p. 38.
20. Watson and Barry, “Our Target Was Terror,” p. 24.
21. Newman, “America Fights Back,” p. 42.
22. Watson and Barry, “Our Target Was Terror,” 24-28.
23. “Six Sites Hit in Afghanistan, Pharmaceutical Plant in Sudan,” AFP, August 20, 1998.
24. David Hirst, “The ‘Secret’ Factory that No One Tried to Hide,” The Guardian (London), August 23, 1998 (http://reports.guardian.co.uk/sp_reports/usbombs/424.html).
25. Clinton, “Address to the Nation by the President.”
26. Transcript: Briefing by Albright and Berger on Terrorist Sites, United States Information Agency, August 20, 1998 (http://www.usia.gov/topical/pol/terror/98082009.htm).
27. DOD News Briefing, Office of the Secretary of Defense, August 20,1998 (http://www.defenselink.mil/).
28. Background Briefing, U.S. Department of Defense, August 20,1998 (http:/Avww.defenselink.mil).
29. Coordinator for Counterterrorism, U.S. Department of State, “Fact Sheet: U.S. Strike on Facilities in Afghanistan and Sudan,” United States Information Agency, August 21, 1998 (http://www.usia.gov/topical/pol/terror/98082112.htm).
30. Ed Vulliamy, Henry McDonald, Shyam Bhatia, and Martin Bright, “Clinton Knew Target Was Civilian,” The Guardian (London), August 23,1998 (http://reports.guardian.co.uk/).
31. Anthony Shadid, “Questions Remain, But Some Sudanese Claims on Factory Prove True,” Associated Press, August 24, 1998. According to one report, the factory had three buildings producing human medicines, and one devoted to producing veterinary medicines.
32. David Hirst, Richard Norton- Taylor, and Gerard Seenan, “Sudan Calls for UN Inspection,” Electronic Mail & Guardian (Johannesburg), August 25, 1998 (http://www.mg.co.za/).
33. Shadid, “Questions Remain”.
34. Hirst, Norton-Taylor, and Seenan, “Sudan Calls for UN Inspection”.
35. Hirst, “The ‘Secret’ Factory.”
36. Daniel Pearl, “More Doubts Rise Over Claims for U.S. Attack,” Wall Street Journal, August 28,1998, p. 8.
37. Tim Weiner and Steven Lee Meyers, “Flaws In U.S. Account Raise Questions on Strike in Sudan,” The New York Times, August 29, 1998, p. 1.
38. “Bombed Sudanese Pharmaceutical Factory Founder: Idea for Factory Was Commercial,” Arabic News, September 14, 1998 (http://www.arabicnews.com/).
39. Pearl, “More Doubts Rise,” p. 8.
40. Hirst, Norton-Taylor, and Seenan, “Sudan Calls for UN Inspection”.
41. “US Bombing Accelerates Health Crisis, Says Sudan,” Electronic Mail & Guardian (Johannesburg), August 25,1998 (http:/Avww.mg.co.za/).
42. Pearl, “More Doubts Rise,” p. 8.
43. Hirst, “The ‘Secret’ Factory”.
44. “UN Postpones Response to Sudan’s Request over US Bombing,” Africa News Service, August 25, 1998.
45. Pearl, “More Doubts Rise,” p. 8.
46. Two press reports said Idris purchased Shifa plant for $27 million. See Beau Brendler, “U.S. Ties Plant to Bin Laden,” ABC News, August 21, 1998 (http://www.abcnews.com:80/).
47. Jane Perlez, “Iraqi Link with Sudan on Nerve Gas Reported,” The New York Times, August 26, 1998, p. A8. Sudanese government officials claim the factory will cost $100 million to. rebuild.
48. Nhial Bol, “Sudan: No Taxpayers Money, 1 Will Rebuild My Factory, Owner Says,” IPS, August 28,1998.
49. Anthony Shahid, “Factory Owner’s Lawyer Says No Links to Bin Laden, No Weapons,” Associated Press, August 23,1998.
50. Shahid, “Questions Remain”.
51. Daniel Pearl, “Owner of Sudan Factory Has No Known Ties to Extremists,” Wall Street Journal, August 24,1998.
52. Pearl, “More Doubts Rise,” p. 8.
53. Shahid, “Questions Remain.” This report cites an interview with Adam Umbadi, a production engineer at the factory.
54. Hirst, Norton-Taylor, and Seenan, “Sudan Calls for UN Inspection”.
55. “U.S. Bombing Accelerates Health Crisis, says Sudan,” Electronic Mail & Guardian (Johannesburg), August 25, 1998 (http://www.mg.co.za/).
56. Shahid, “Questions Remain.”
57. Hirst, Norton-Taylor, and Seenan, “Sudan Calls for UN Inspection”.
58. Shahid, “Factory Owner’s Lawyer Says No Links.” According to Sudanese doctors and health officials, the factory’s destruction could lead to severe drug shortages endangering the lives of thousands of Sudanese. See “Sudan Says Attack Will Cause Drug Shortage,” Washington Post, August 28, 1998, p. 1.
59. Ian Brodie, “America Reviews Sudan Chemical Evidence,” The Times (London), August 29, 1998 (http://www.the-times.co.uk).
60. “Engineers Deny Sudan Factory Could Have Produced VX Gas,” AFP, August 22,1998.
61. “UK Engineer Says No Chemical Weapons at Sudan Plant,” Reuters, August 23,1998.
62. Shadid, “Factory Owner’s Lawyer Says No Links”.
63. Shadid, “Questions Remain”
64. Anthony Shadid, “Sudan Factory May Have Made Drugs,” Associated Press, August 24,1998.
65. Bob Amot, “Sudan: Bad, Yes, But Is it Guilty Too?,” MSNBC News, September 2, 1998 (http://www.msnbc.com/news/190722.asp).
66. Colum Lynch, “Allied Doubts Grow about the US Strike on Sudanese Plant,” Boston Globe, September 24, 1998. The U.S. Department of State has acknowledged that the United States approved the sale in January 1998.
67. James Foley, “Transcript: State Department Briefing on Sudan/Phar- maceutical Factory,” United States Information Agency, August 25, 1998 (http://www.usia.gov/topical/pol/terror/98082501.htm).
68. Hirst, Norton-Taylor, and Seenan, “Sudan Calls for UN Inspection”.
69. Shadid, “Questions Remain.”
70. Hersh, “Annals of National Security,” p. 35.
71. Baron Gellman and Dana Priest, “U.S. Strikes Terrorist-Linked Sites in Afghanistan, Factory in Sudan,” Washington Post, August 21, 1998.
72. “Sudan Minister Denies Existence of Chemical Weapons Plant,” AFP, August 21, 1998.
73. “Khartoum to Complain to UN,” Electronic Mail & Guardian (Johannesburg), August 21, 1998 (http://www.mg.co.za).
74. Alfred Taban, “Sudan Seeks Foreign Support after U.S. Raid,” Reuters, August 21,1998.
75. Martin Evans, “UK Engineer Says Sudan Factory Not Equipped to Make
76. Weapons,” London Press Association, August 22, 1998, in FBIS FTS19980822000217 (22 August 1998).
77. Joris Leyendijk, “Khartoum Exploits US ‘Aggression,’” De Volkskrant (Amsterdam), August 26,1998, 1-5, in FBIS FTS 19980826000735 (26 August 1998).
78. Vulliamy, McDonald, Bhatia and Bright, “Clinton Knew Target Was Civilian.”
79. Hersh, “Annals of National Security,” p. 35.
80. Shadid, “Questions Remain”.
81. “Sudan: US-Militarschlag doch gegen falsches Ziel?,” Der Spiegel, August 29,1998 (http://www.spiegel.de/).
82. “Italian Envoy: US Air Strike in Sudan ‘Surgical,” ANSA (Rome), August 21, 1998. in FBIS FTS19980821001296 (21 August 1998).
83. Pearl, “More Doubts Rise,” p. 8.
84. Steven Lee Myers and Tim Weiner, “Possible Benign Use Is Seen for Chemical at Factory in Sudan,” The New York Times, August 27,1998, p. 1.
85. Vulliamy, McDonald, Bhatia and Bright, “Clinton Knew Target Was Civilian.” Seth Carus disputes Camaffm’s claim on this point, saying airlocks are not necessary at a CW-production facility (interview with author, October 22, 1998).
86. Terry Atlas and Ray Moseley, “‘Smoking Gun’ for Sudan Raid Now in Doubt,” Chicago Tribune, August 28, 1998 (http://chicagotribune.com).
87. “Engineers Deny Sudan Factory Could Have Produced VX Gas,” AFP, August 22, 1998.
88. Mark Hubbard and Clive Cookson, “Diplomats Query US Allegations on Sudan,” Financial Times (London), August 29, 1998.
89. “Destroyed Sudanese Factory Produces Only Drugs: German Ambassador,” Xinhua, August 30, 1998.
90. “Missiles Against Wrong Target?,” Welt Am Sonntag (Hamburg), August 30,1998, p. 2. in FBIS FTS 19980831000995 (31 August 1998). The German Foreign Ministry classified the report as secret, but the German press published portions of its text.
91. Mark Hubbard, “Military Strikes: Doubts Raised on US Target Claims,” Financial Times, August 26, 1998.
92. “Sudanese Opposition Claim Plant Produced Chemical Weapons,” Al- Hayah (London), August 26, 1998, p. 6, in FBIS FTS 19980827000590 (27 August 1998).
93. “Al-Mahdi: Al-Shifa Strike Helped Regime,” Al-Sharq al- Awsat (London), September 4,1998, p. 4, in FBIS FTS 19980905000486 (5 September 1998).
94. “Soil Sample Key to U.S. Missile Strike in Sudan,” Chemical and Engineering News, August 31, 1998, p. 7.
95. John Diamond, “U.S. Intelligence Cites Iraqi Tie to Sudan Plant,” Associated Press, August 25, 1998, in Boston Globe (http://www.boston.com).
96. Weiner and Myers, “Flaws in U.S. Account Raise Questions,” p. 8.
97. Weiner and Risen, “Decision to Strike Factory in Sudan,” p. A1.
98. Diamond, “U.S. Intelligence Cites Iraqi”.
99. Paul Richter, “Sudan Attack Claims Faulty, U.S. Admits,” Los Angeles Times, September 1, 1998.
100. Tim Weiner and Steven Lee Myers, “U.S. Defends Attack on Sudanese Drug Plant,” The New York Times, September 3, 1998.
101. Weiner and Risen, “Decision to Strike Factory in Sudan,” p. A1.
102. Brodie, “America Reviews Sudan Chemical Evidence”.
103. Myersand Weiner, “Possible Benign Use Is Seen,” p. 1.
104. Weiner and Myers, “Flaws in U.S. Account Raise Questions,” p. 1.
105. Jane Perlez, “Iraqi Link with Sudan,” p. A8.
106. Steven Lee Myers, “U.S. Says Iraq Aided Production of Chemical Weapons in Sudan,” The New York Times, August 25, 1998, p. 1.
107. Karl Vick, “U.S., Sudan Trade Claims on Factory,” Washington Post, August 25,1998, p. 1.
108. Vernon Loeb and Bradley Graham, “Sudan Plant Was Probed Months before Attack,” International Herald Tribune, September 1, 1998.
109. Transcript: Pickering on US Sudan, Afghanistan Strikes, United States Information Agency, August 26,1998 (http://www.usia.gov/topical/pol/ter-ror/98082701.htm).
110. “White House Says No Sign Iraq Exported Arms,” Reuters, February 17, 1998.
111. Yossef Bodansky, “The Iraqi WMD Challenge: Myths and Reality,” (Washington, D.C.: U.S. House of Representatives Task Force on Terrorism and Unconventional Warfare, February 10, 1998). On the credibility of the Bodansky report, see note no. 154 below.
112. Jacquelyn S. Porth, “U.S. Has Chemical Weapons-Related Soil Sample from Sudan Plant,” United States Information Agency, undated (http://www.usia.gov/topical/pol/terror/98082502.htm).
113. Tim Weiner, “Pentagon and C.I.A. Defend Sudan Missile Attack,” The New York Times, September 2, 1998, p. A5.
114. Following a terrorist bombing in Berlin, U.S. officials released a decoded message intercepted en route to Tripoli from the Libyan mission in East Germany, which described how the bombing had been conducted. See Milt Bearden, “Explaining Our Actions in the Sudan,” The New York Times, August 26, 1998.
115. Hersh, “Annals of National Security,” p. 39.
116. “U.S. Claims More Evidence Linking Sudanese Plant to Chemical Weapons,” CNN Interactive, September 1, 1998 (http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/africa/9809/01/sudan.plant).
117. Weiner and Risen, “Decision to Strike Factory in Sudan,” p. A1.
118. James Risen, “New Evidence Ties Sudanese to Bin Laden, U.S. Asserts,” The New York Times, October 4, 1998.
119. Weiner and Risen, “Decision to Strike Factory in Sudan,” p. A1.
120. Weiner, “Pentagon and C.I.A. Defend Sudan Missile Attack,” p. A5.
121. “Administration Officials Detail Missile Strike Strategy,” AP, September 2, 1998.
122. Pearl, “Sudan Plant’s Apparent Owner Has No Known Extremist Ties,” Wall Street Journal, August 24, 1998, p. A9.
123. Hans Dahne, “Owner of Sudanese Factory Comes Under Scrutiny in Wake of US Strikes,” Deutsche Presse-Agentur, September 22,1998.
124. Risen, “New Evidence Ties Sudanese to Bin Laden.”
125. Tim Weiner, “Pentagon and C.I.A. Defend Sudan Missile Attack,” p. A5.
126. Hans Dahne, “Owner of Sudanese Factory Comes Under Scmtiny in Wake of US Strikes,” Deutsche Presse-Agentur, September 22, 1998.
127. Jane Perlez, “Iraqi Link with Sudan,” p. A8.
128. Hans Dahne, “Owner of Sudanese Factory Comes Under Scmtiny in Wake of US Strikes,” Deutsche Presse-Agentur, September 22, 1998.
129. Hubbard, “Military Strikes: Doubts Raised on US Target Claims.”
130. Pearl, “Owner of Sudan Factory”.
131. Risen, “New Evidence Ties Sudanese to Bin Laden.”
132. Pearl, “Sudan Plant’s Apparent Owner,” p. A9.
133. “The Rebels Meet in Asmara,” Indian Ocean Newsletter, October 10, 1998.
134. David Hirst, “Factory Rubble Yields No Sign of Arms,” The Guardian (London), August 24, 1998.
135. Hans Dahne, “Owner of Sudanese Factory Comes Under Scmtiny in Wake of US Strikes,” Deutsche Presse-Agentur, September 22, 1998.
136. “Khartoum Factory Owner Denies Rebuilding Deal with U.S.,” Deutsche Press-Agentur, September 10, 1998.
137. “Owner Vows to Rebuild Bombed Sudan Factory,” Reuters, August 26, 1998.
138. Bol, “Sudan: No Taxpayers Money.”
139. Starr, “More Questions than Answers.”
140. Watson and Barry, “Our Target Was Terror,” p. 28.
141. Loeb and Graham, “Sudan Plant Was Probed Months before Attack,” p. 2.
142. “Sudan Target Pulled,” U.S. News & World Report, September 21,1998, p. 7. See also “Most JCS Members Not Consulted.”
143. “Cohen Defends Bin Laden Raid Plans,” MSNBC News, October 6,1998 (http://www.msnbc.com:80/news/202142.asp).
144. Hersh, “Annals of National Security,” p. 36.
145. Jane Perlez, “Iraqi Link With Sudan,” p. A8.
146. Vick, “U.S., Sudan Trade Claims on Factory,” p. 1.
147. Robert S. Greenberger and Nikhil Deogun, “Officials Say Soil Sample Buttressed U.S. Suspicions about Sudan Plant,” Wall Street Journal, August 25, 1998, p. 16.
148. Atlas and Moseley, “Smoking Gun’ for Sudan.”
149. Myers and Weiner, “Possible Benign Use Is Seen,” p. 1.
150. “Soil Sample Key to U.S. Missile Strike in Sudan,” p. 7.
151. Pearl, “More Doubts Rise,” p. 8.
152. Jonathan Tucker, personal communications with the author, August 31, 1998, and September 8 and 14, 1998.
153. Weiner and Risen, “Decision to Strike Factory in Sudan,” p. A1.
154. “Dubious Decisions on the Sudan,” The New York Times, September 23, 1998, p. A30.
155. Weiner and Risen, “Decision to Strike Factory in Sudan,” p. A1.
156. Hersh, “Annals of National Security,” p. 40.
157. “Soil Sample Key to U.S. Missile Strike in Sudan,” p. 6.
158. Deborah MacKenzie, “Questions First, Bombs Later,” New Scientist, September 19,1998, p. 51.
159. Peter Capella and Andrew Marshall, “US Strives to Justify Air Strike on Sudan Attack on Factory,” Independent (Johannesburg), August 26, 1998.
160. EMPTA can be used to produce VX, but it can also be a product of the degradation of VX (Y u-Chu Yang, Linda L. Szaftaniec, William T. Beaudry, and Dennis K. Rohrbaugh, “Oxidative Detoxification of Posphothiolates,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 112 [1990], 6621-27).
161. Pearl, “More Doubts Rise,” p. 8.
162. Rachel Wolff, “U.S. Government Facing Growing Questions on Sudan Missile Attack,” Asahi Shimbun (Tokyo), September 1, 1998.
163. “Soil Sample Key to U.S. Missile Strike in Sudan,” p. 6.
164. Myers, “U.S; Says Iraq Aided Production,” p. 1.
165. “U.S. Claims More Evidence Linking Sudanese Plant.” An unidentified U.S. intelligence official said that samples were taken from five other sites in the Sudan, but only that collected at Shifa tested positive for EMPTA. See Paul Richter, “Sudan Attack Claims Faulty, U.S. Admits,” Los Angeles Times, September 1, 1998.
166. William J. Clinton, “Radio Address of the President to the Nation,” August 22, 1998 (http://www.usia.gov/topical/pol/terror/98082201.htm).
167. Cohen and Shelton, “DOD News Briefing”.
168. Transcript: Albright onNBC-TV ‘Today’ Show, United States Information Agency, August 21, 1998 (http://www.usia.gov/topical/pol/terror/98082101.htm).
169. Bill Richardson, “Text: Ambassador Richardson Letter to UNSC,” United States Information Agency, August 20, 1998 (http://www.usia.gov/topical/pol/terror/98082008.htm).
170. Thomas Pickering, “Transcript: State Department Noon Briefing, August 21,1998,” United States Information Agency, August 21, 1998 (http://www.usia.gov/topical/pol/terror/98082110.htm).
171. Martin Indyk, “Transcript: Indyk Briefing for Middle East Press,” United States Information Agency, August 21, 1998 (http://www.usia.gov/topical/pol/terror/98082115.htm).
172. James Foley, “Transcript: State Department Briefing on Sudan/Pharmaceutical Factory,” United States Information Agency, August 25,1998 (http://www.usia.gov/topical/pol/terror/98082501.htm).
173. “Pentagon Stands by Accusations Against Sudan Factory,” AFP, September 8, 1998.
174. “U.S. Officials: Strong But Not Conclusive Evidence on Sudan Plant,” Deutsche Presse-Agentur, September 4, 1998.
175. A Newsweek report of September 28 provided an account that differed from that of U.S. intelligence officials, saying the sample was not taken from the soil, but rather from a discharge pipe from the plant. See “Making a Case,” Newsweek, September 28, 1998, p. 6.
176. Porth, “U.S. Has Chemical Weapons-Related Soil Sample.”
177. Yu-Chu Yang, Linda L. Szafraniec, William T. Beaudry, and Clifford A. Bunton, Perhydrolysis of Nerve Agent VX, Journal of Organic Chemistry 58 (1993), 6964-65.
178. Loeb and Graham, “Sudan Plant was Probed Months before Attack.”
179. Rachel Wolff, “U.S. Government Facing Growing Questions.”
180. Jane Perlez, “Iraqi Link with Sudan,” p. A8.
181. Kathleen Vogel, interview with the author, October 15, 1998.
182. Mitretek Systems, “Chemistry of VX” (http://www.mitretek.org/offer/energy/cw_page/vx.html).
183. Richard Norton-Taylor, “Show Evidence for Sudan Raid, MP Demands,” The Guardian (London), August 25, 1998 (http://reports.guardian.co.uk).
184. Atlas and Moseley, “Smoking Gun’ for Sudan.”
185. The author is indebted to Kathleen Vogel for this example. See Robin M. Black and Graham S. Pearson, “Unequivocal Evidence,” Chemistry in Britain (July 1993), 584-87.
186. Robin M. Black, Raymond J. Clarke, Robert W. Read, and Michael T.J. Reid, “Application of Gas Chromatography- Mass Spectrometry and Gas Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry to the Analysis of Chemical Warfare Samples, Found to Contain Residues of the Nerve Agent Sarin, Suphur Mustard and their Degradation Products,” Journal of Chromatography 662 (1994), 301-321.
187. Sudan and Terrorism, Hearing before the Subcommittee on African Affairs of the Committee on Foreign Relations of the United States Senate, 105th Congress, First Session, May 15, 1997, 63-64 (http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov).
188. There were prior allegations of CW use in the Sudan, but these charges were made against Sudanese rebels. In 1986, the Sudanese government and an official of Ethiopia’s Democratic Peoples Alliance alleged that the rebel Sudanese People’s Liberation Army (SPLA) used chemical weapons in attacks on Sudanese villagers and government military personnel. See Gordon M. Burck and Charles C. Flowerree, International Handbook on Chemical Weapons Proliferation (New York: Greenwood Press, 1991), 471-472.
189. Barry Shelby, “Sudan’s Weapons,” World Press Review, February 1989, p. 41.
190. Deborah Pugh, “Sudan May Have Chemical Weapons,” The Guardian (London), August 13, 1990, p. 2.
191. INA (Baghdad), The Guardian December 25, 1988.
192. Deborah Pugh, in FBIS-NES-88-248 (27 December 1988).
193. Radio SPLA, April 18, 1991, in BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, April 18, 1991.
194. INA (Baghdad), August 25, 1990, in FBIS-NES-90-166 (27 August 1990).
195. United States Department of State, “Recent Chemical Weapons (CW) Use Allegations Africa,” United States Department of State Information Memorandum, March 9,1992, 1-2, Secret/NOFORN, declassified January 1, 1998 (available online at http://cns.miis.edu/research/wmdme/.00002I67.pdf).
196. “London Conference Resolutions,” Sudan News and Views 16 (December 1995).
197. “Opposition Radio Says State Planning to Construct Chemical Weapons Factory,” BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, April 12, 1996.
198. “Sudanese Alliance Forces Leader Interviewed,” Al-Majallah (London), January 5-11, 1997, in FBIS FTS19970317001393 (17 March 1997).
199. “Opposition Says Iran Supplies Heavy, Chemical Weapons,” Radio France International, January 27, 1997, in FBIS FTS19970127001355 (27 January 1997).
200. “Opposition Says Iran Giving Government Chemical Weapons,” Voice of Sudan, January 30, 1997, in FB1S-TAC-98-208 (27 July 1998).
201. “Opposition Radio Says Government Receiving Arms from Iran,” BBC Worldwide Monitoring, January 30, 1997.
202. “SPLA Leader says Iran Supplies Government with Chemical Weapons,” MENA, February 2, 1997, in BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, February 2, 1997.
203. “Opposition Says Iran Sent Tanks, CW to Khartoum,” MENA, January 26, 1997, in FBIS FTS19970422001385 (25 March 1998).
204. “Chemical Weapons Factory Reportedly Built Near Khartoum,” MENA, July 16, 1997, in BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, July 16,1997.
205. “Uganda Paper Says Sudan Sends 60,000 Troops to Defend Juba,” Sunday Vision (Kampala), September 21, 1997, p. 2.
206. “Garang Says War in South ‘Over’; Eastern Front ‘Next Target,” Al- Bayan (Dubai), June 28,1997, in BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, June 28, 1997.
207. Jihad Salim, Al-Watan Al-’Arabi (Paris), October 31, 1997, in FBIS FTS19971118000479 (18 November 1997).
208. Emmy Allio, “Sudan Has Poison Gas Plant Near Uganda,” Africa News Online, November 21, 1997 (http://www.africanews.org).
209. “Manufacture of Non-Conventional Weapons in Khartoum,” Vigilance Soudan, English edition, 1st Quarter 1998 (http://perso.club-intemet.fr/vigilsd/artides/ba2/ab-2-g.htm).
210. Human Rights Watch, Global Trade, Local Impact: Arms Transfers to All Sides in the Civil War in Sudan (August 1998) (http://www.hrw.org/hrw/reports98/sudan/).
211. Office of Technology Assessment, Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction: Assessing the Risks (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, August 1993), p. 15.
212. Efraim Karsh, Martin S. Navias, and Philip Sabin, eds., Non-Conventional Weapons Proliferation in the Middle East (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993), p. 92.
213. “CWC Status: States of Chemical Weapons Proliferation Concern,” Stimson Center, July 23, 1998 (http://www.stimson.org/cwc/status.htm).
214. John Pike, “States Possessing Weapons of Mass Destruction,” (Federation of American Scientists, November 16, 1997) (http://www.fas.org/irp/threat/wmd_state.htm).
215. Office of the Secretary of Defense, Proliferation: Threat and Response (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Defense, October 1997), 23-40.
216. Report of Proliferation-Related Acquisitions in 1997, Central Intelligence Agency (http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/acql997.html).
217. Phyllis E. Oakley, “Assessing Current and Projected Threats to U.S. National Security,” Testimony before the U.S. Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, Washington, D.C., January 28, 1998 (http://www.state.gov).
218. Bodansky, “The Iraqi WMD Challenge: Myths and Reality”.
219. Jim Wolf, “Iraq Hid Deadly Weapons Abroad-Congress Report,” Reuters, February 15, 1998.
220. “White House Says No Sign Iraq Exported Arms,” Reuters, February 17, 1998.
221. “Authorities Claim US ‘Disinformation Attempt’ Over Iraq” Sueddeutsche Zeitung (Munich), March 26, 1998. in FBIS-WEU-98-085,26 March 1998.
222. Norton-Taylor, “Show Evidence for Sudan Raid, MP Demands”.
223. Donna Casata, “Author of House Report on Iraqi Arms Finds His Credibility Under Siege,” Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report, February 28, 1998, 502-503.
224. “UNSCOM Activities,” SIPRI Yearbook 1994 (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press/Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, 1994), 75556.
225. Anthony H. Cordesman, “Weapons of Mass Destruction in the Middle East: National Efforts, War Fighting Capabilities, Weapons Lethality, Terrorism, and Arms Control Implications” (Washington, D.C.: Center for Strategic and International Studies, February 1998), p. 31.
226. Michael Eisenstadt, “Iraq’s Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD): Unresolved Issues,” Policywatch #304, February 27, 1998 (http://www.washingtoninstitute.org).
227. Seth Carus, personal interview with the author, October 22,1998.
228. Jihad Salim, Al-Watan Al-Arabi (Paris), October 31, 1997; in FBIS FTS19971118000479 (18 November 1997).
229. Kenneth Roth, “Letter to Clinton Urges Sudan Factory Inspection,” Human Rights Watch, September 15, 1998 (http://www.hrw.org/hrw/sept/sudan915.htm).
230. “Sudanese Opposition Leader on US Strike,” MENA (Cairo), August 26, 1998; in FBIS FTS19980826001124 (26 August 1998).
231. “Al- Mahdi: Al-Shifa Strike Helped Regime,” p. 4.
232. Salim, “Report on Bin-Ladin, Zawahiri, ‘Afghans.”
233. Diamond, “U.S. Intelligence Cites Iraqi.”
234. “Chemical Weapons Factory Reportedly Built Near Khartoum,” MENA (Cairo), July 16, 1997, in BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, July 16, 1997.
235. Al-Diyar (Beirut), January 14, 1998, p. 14, in FBIS FTS19980115001140 (15 January 1998).
236. Roth, “Letter to Clinton Urges Sudan Factory Inspection”.
237. “Chemical Weapon Factory Damaged in 18 July Explosion,” Voice of Sudan, July 26, 1998; in FBIS-TAV-98-208 (27 July 1998).
238. Jane Perlez, “Iraqi Link with Sudan,” p. A8.
239. “Uganda Paper Says Sudan Sends 60,000 Troops to Defend Juba,” Sunday Vision (Kampala), September 21,1997, p. 2.
240. Allio, “Sudan Has Poison Gas Plant near Uganda.” The same sources apparently provided the basis for a second, simultaneous account: Jon Swain, Sunday Times (London), “British Daily-lraq Manufacturing Mustard Gas in Sudan,” November 16, 1997, p. 25. in FBIS FTSI99711160000141 (16 November 1998).
241. Jerome Hull, “UN Postpones Response to Sudan’s Request Over US Bombing” Pan Africa News Agency, August 25,1998.
242. “Sudan Urges NAM Support for UN Fact-Finding Mission,” AFP, August 31, 1998. Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir later invited former U.S. President Jimmy Carter to tour the remains of the Shifa facility. See “Sudan Invites Former US President Carter to Investigate Bombing,” AFP, September 22,1998.
243. “Sudan Dismisses US Factory-Attack Explanations”, AFP, August 25,1998.
244. “Arabs Give Strong Backing to Sudan in Standoff with US,” AP, August 24, 1998.
245. “League of Arab States Supporting Sudan,” Xinhua, August 23, 1998.
246. “Arab League Wants UN Probe of Strike in Sudan,” Reuters, August 24,1998.
247. “OAU Backs Fact-Finding Mission to Sudan,” AFP, August 28, 1998.
248. “IGAD Backs Sudan Request for UN Inquiry into US Bombing,” AFP, September 5, 1998.
249. Nicole Winfield, “Arabs Demand US-Sudan Bomb Probe,” AFP, September 18,1998.
250. “OAU Demands UN Inquiry into US Bombing in Sudan,” AFP, September 21, 1998.
251. “No UN Security Council Decision on Sudan Fact-Finding Mission,” AFP, August 24, 1998.
252. “No International Probe Needed for Sudan Bombing: Richardson,” AFP, August 30, 1998.
253. “Draft UN Resolution Calls for Sudan Fact-Finding Mission,” AFP, September 28,1998.
254. Winfield, “Arabs Demand US-Sudan Bomb Probe.”
255. “Security Council Discusses Resolution on Sudan Bombing,” AFP, September 29, 1998.
256. Colum Lynch, “Khartoum Called Willing to Drop Effort for UN Probe into US Bombing of Plant,” Boston Globe, October 7, 1998.
257. Coordinator for Counterterrorism, Department of State, “Fact Sheet: U.S. Strike on Facilities in Afghanistan and Sudan.”
258. “Soil Samples Prove Sudan Plant Made Component of VX: US Official,” AFP, August 25, 1998.
259. Weiner and W Risen, “Decision to Strike Factory in Sudan,” p. A1.
260. Roth, “Letter to Clinton Urges Sudan Factory Inspection”.