Spousal Abuse, Children and the Courts: The Case For Social Rather Than Legal Change

Canadian Journal of Law and Society

Volumn 12, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 101-145

  Neilson, Linda ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NEW BRUNSWICK   (Canada)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 85010117784     PISSN: 08293201     EISSN: 19110227     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0829320100005226     Document Type: Article

References (409)

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3. Statistics Canada, Wife Assault: The Findings of a National Survey” (1994) 14.9 Juristat (Catalogue No. 85–000). Statistics Canada's use of terms “spousal” and “marital” partner includes common law as well as marital relationships.
4. P. Jaffee, D. Wolfe & S. Wilson, Children of Battered Women (London: Sage, 1990) at 20.
5. Children of Battered Women, at 16.
6. If a family violence and abuse are to be eradicated, we must be sensitive to the fact that men as well as women report being victimized by abuse. See M. Straus & R. Gelles, “Societal Change and Change in Family Violence 1975–1985” (1986) 48 Journal of Marriage and the Family 465. It is important not to denigrate, trivialize or inore the experiences of men.
7. At the same time, however, it would be inequitable to ignore the particularvulnerabilities of women. See R. Dobash etal, “The Myth of Sexual Symmetry in Marital Violence” (1992) 39 Social Problems 71
8. J. Johnston, “Domestic Violence and Parent-Child Relationships in Families Disputing Custody” (1994) 3:2 Family Mediation 11
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11. D. Ellis, Family Mediation Pilot Project Final Report (Oakville, Ont.: Ellis, 1994) at 35. Consequently, when discussing partner or spousal abuse generally, the female gender is used when referring to the victim and the male gender when referring to the abuser. The intention is not to ignore or to trivialize the experiences of men, but rather to avoid the objectification and dehumanization that accompanies the use of gender-neutral language.
12. D. Fisher, “Why Parents Run” (1990) 5:1 Journal of Interpersonal Violence 123
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18. Canada's recent National Survey on Violence Against Women (Ottawa: Statistics Canada, 1993) found that one fifth of the women who reported violence by a previous partner stated that the violence occurred following or during separation and one third of these women reported that the violence increased in severity at the time of separation.
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36. R. Nelson, “Parental Hostility, Conflict and Communication in Joint and Sole Custody Families” (1989) 13:2 Journal of Divorce 145.
37. It seems that a minority of men who abuse their partners will also abuse their children. See Pagelow, Journal of Divorce 10
38. D. Saunders, “Child Custody Decisions in Families Experiencing Women Abuse” (1994) 39:1 Social Work 151
39. E. Stark & A. Flitcraft, “Woman-Battering, Child Abuse and Social Heredity: What Is the Relationship?” (1985) Marital Violence 147
40. E. Stark & A. Flitcraft, “Women and Children at Risk: A Feminist Perspective on Child Abuse” (1988) 18:1 International Journal of Health Services 97 [hereinafter “Women and Children at Risk”]. However, the figures–generally considered to be in the range of 20 to 50 percent–warrant concern.
41. For example Cahn International Journal of Health Services 10 Families in Transition, Custody and Access: A Response to the Department of Justice Discussion Paper (Toronto: Family in Transition, 1993) Department of Justice, Custody and Access: Public Discussion Paper (Ottawa: Minister of Justice, 1993)
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45. Kerruish, Family and Conciliation Courts Review 9
46. Treviño, Family and Conciliation Courts Review 9 at 63.
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54. Treviño, Societies: Evolutionary and Comparative Perspectives 9
55. M. Weber, Law in Economy and Society, trans. E. Shils & M. Rheinstein (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1954).
56. For similar conclusions reached in other contexts, see V. Sacco, “Images of Public Opinion in the Study of Legal Control” in N. Boyd, ed., The Social Dimensions of Law (Scarborough, Ont.: Prentice-Hall, 1986) 86
57. M. Dupuis, “An Analysis of Legal Status of Same Sex Relationships: The Impact of Culture, Society and History in Legal Process in the United States and Denmark” (1995) 9 International Journal of Law and the Family 86.
58. P. Monture-Okanee, “The Violence We Women Do: A First Nations View” in T. Brettel Dawson, ed., Women, Law and Social Change (North York, Ont.: Captus, 1993) 132.
59. See also A. Solomen, “Songs for the People: Teachings on the Natural Way” in J. Banfield, ed., Readings in Law and Society (North York, Ont.: Captus, 1995) 227
60. M. E. Turpel, “Aboriginal Peoples and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms: Contradictions and Challenges” in Banfield, ed., Readings in Law and Society. 231
61. M. Boldt & J. A. Long, “Tribal Philosophies and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms” in Banfield, ed., Readings in Law and Society 239.
62. See also B. Lund, C. Morris & M. L. Duryea, Conflict and Culture Report of the Multiculturalsim and Dispute Resolution Project (Victoria: Uvic Institute for Dispute Resolution, 1994)
63. A. Bartholomew & S. Boyd, “Towards a Political Economy of Law” in W. Clement & G. Williams, eds., The New Canadian Political Economy (Kingston: McGill-Queen's, 1989)
64. Kerruish, The New Canadian Political Economy 9.
65. W. G. Sumner, Essays of William Graham Sumner (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1934) [hereinafter Essays].
66. Turpel, Essays of William Graham Sumner 21.
67. Essays of William Graham Sumner, at 234.
68. Essays of William Graham Sumner.
69. See also Monture-Okanee, Essays of William Graham Sumner 20.
70. For example, Masters & Gruter, Essays of William Graham Sumner 19
71. Lund, Morris & Duryea, Essays of William Graham Sumner 22
72. W. G. Sumner, Folkways: A Study of the Sociological Importance of Usages, Manners, Customs, Mores, and Morals (Boston: Ginn, 1940) [hereinafater Folkways].
73. Lund, Morris & Duryea, Folkways: A Study of the Sociological Importance of Usages, Manners, Customs, Mores, and Morals.
74. R. Schmitt, Marx and Engels: A Critical Reconstruction (Boulder, Co: Westview, 1987) 30.
75. W. Chambliss & R. Seidman, Law, Order and Power (Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley, 1982)
76. N. Poulantzas, “The Problem of the Capitalist State” in R. Blackburn, ed. Ideology in the Social Sciences (New York: Pantheon, 1972)
77. R. Miliband, “Reply to Poulantzas” in Blackburn, Ideology in the Social Sciences.
78. R. Quinney, Critique of Legal Order (Boston: Little Brown, 1974)
79. A. Wood, “The Marxian Critique of Justice” in M. Cohen et al., eds., Marx, Justice and History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980) 3
80. A. Woodiwiss, Social Theory After Postmodernism Rethinking Production, Law and Class (London: Pluto, 1990).
81. D. Kairys, ed., The Politics of Law (New York: Pantheon, 1982) at 3–5.
82. T. B. Dawson, “Mapping Law: An Introduction to Core Concepts in Legal Studies and Women's Studies” in Brettel Dawson, ed., The Politics of Law 20, 154.
83. S. Boyd & E. Sheeley, “Feminism and the Law in Canada: An Overview” in T. Brettel Dawson, ed., The Politics of Law. 181 at 181,183,185 [hereinafter “Overview”].
84. E. Durkheim, The Rules of Sociological Method (New York: Free Press, 1982)
85. E. Durkheim, The Division of Labor in Society (New York: Free Press, 1964)
86. R. Pound, Social Control Through Law (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1942).
87. O. Fiss, “Objectivity and Interpretation” in S. Levinson & S. Mailloux, ed., Interpreting Law and Literature (Evanston: III.: Northwestern University Press, 1988) 232.
88. Weber, Interpreting Law and Literature 19 Parsons, Interpreting Law and Literature 19
89. M. Foucault, Discipline and Punish (New York: Pantheon, 1977).
90. See also R. Morrow & D. Brown, Critical Theory and Methodology (Thousand Oaks: Sage, 1994).
91. M. Galanter, “Why the ‘Haves’ Come out Ahead: Speculation on the Limits of Legal Change” in Department of Law Casebook Group, Introduction to Legal Studies (North York: Captus, 1995) 225.
92. A. Hunt, Explorations in Law and Society: Towards a Constitutive Theory of Law (London: Routledge, 1993).
93. Brooke, Explorations in Law and Society: Towards a Constitutive Theory of Law 19.
94. S. Boyd, “From Gender Specificity to Gender Neutrality? Ideologies in Canadian Child Custody Law” in Banfield, ed., Explorations in Law and Society: Towards a Constitutive Theory of Law 21, 382 [hereinafter “From Gender Specificity to Gender Neutrality”].
95. J. Ursell, Private Lives, Public Policy (Toronto: Women's Press, 1992)
96. M. A. Glendon, The New Family and New Property (Toronto: Butterworths, 1981).
97. R. Hamilton, “Women, Wives, and Mothers” in C. J. Richardson, ed., Family Life: Patterns and Perspectives (Toronto: McGraw-Hill, 1996) 110
98. A.Oakley, Housewife (London: Allen Lane, 1974)
99. M. Young & P. Willmott, The Symmetrical Family (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1975).
100. See also Glendon, The Symmetrical Family R. Collier, Masculinity, Law and the Family (London: Routledge, 1995).
101. R. Abel, “The Contradictions of Professionalism” in School of Justice Studies, Arizona State University, New Directions in the Study of Justice, Law and Social Control (New York: Plenum, 1990) 17
102. R. Bush, “The Economic Significance of Access to Justice: An Analysis of Resource Allocation to Dispute Resolution Services in Relation to Public Policy-Making and the Public Interest” in M. Cappelletti & B. Garth, eds., Access to Justice: Emerging Issues and Perspectives (Milan: Sijthoff & Noordhoff-Alphen Aandenrign, 1979) 191
103. L. Friedman, “Access to Justice: Social and Historical Context” in M. Cappelletti & J. Weisner, eds., Access to Justice Promising Institutions (Milan: Sijthoff & Noordhoff-Alphenandenrign, 1978) 5
104. D. Leat, “The Rise and Role of the Poor Man's Lawyer” (1975) 2 Brit. J. of Law & Soc. 166
105. National Council on Welfare, Legal Aid and the Poor (Ottawa: Supply & Services, 1995) at 1.
106. Glendon, Legal Aid and the Poor 42 at 107 Collier
107. Legal Aid and the Poor 43 at 218,229.
108. Legal Aid and the Poor 42,43 and 45.
109. Hamilton, Legal Aid and the Poor 43
110. M. Shanley, Feminism, Marriage, and the Law in Victorian England, 1850–1895 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989) at 6.
111. W. P. Eversley, The Law of Domestic Relations (London: Stevens & Haynes, 1906) at 3, 509.
112. N. Sargent, “The Possibilities and Perils of Legal Studies” (1991) 6 C.J.L.S. 1 at 8.
113. M. Green, “The History of Canadian Narcotics Control: The Formative Years” in Boyd, ed., C.J.L.S. 19,24.
114. Woodiwiss, C.J.L.S. 30 at 121.
115. M. Ignatieff, “State, Civil Society and the Total Institutions: A Critique of Recent Social Histories of Punishment” in M. Tonry & N. Morris, eds., Crime and Justice: An Annual Review of the Research, vol. 3 192
116. Hunt, Crime and Justice: An Annual Review of the Research 38.
117. Treviño, Crime and Justice: An Annual Review of the Research 9 at 33. I have taken the liberty of adding the words “dominant” and “these” in order better to place Treviño's comment in context.
118. Ursel, Crime and Justice: An Annual Review of the Research 42
119. Glendon, Crime and Justice: An Annual Review of the Research 42 at 129
120. L. Gordon, Women, the State and Welfare (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990)
121. Hamilton, Women, the State and Welfare 43.
122. Ursel, Women, the State and Welfare
123. Glendon, Women, the State and Welfare Gordon, ed., Women, the State and Welfare Glendon, Women, the State and Welfare, at 107
124. Collier, Women, the State and Welfare 43.
125. Hamilton, Women, the State and Welfare 43
126. Oakley, Women, the State and Welfare 43
127. Young & Willmott, Women, the State and Welfare 43.
128. Women, the State and Welfare 43.
129. See also Shanley, Women, the State and Welfare 47
130. Collier, Women, the State and Welfare 43.
131. While theorists disagree about the specific stages, mechanics, and causes of professionalization, they agree that professions are social creations. See R. Dingwall, The Social Organization of Health Visitor Training (London: Croom Helm, 1977)
132. P. Elliott, The Sociology of the Professions (London: MacMillan, 1972)
133. E. Freidson, Professional Powers (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986)
134. W. Goode, “The Theoretical Limits of Professionalization” in A. Etzioni, ed., The Semi-Professions and Their Organization Teachers, Nurses, Social Workers (New York: Free Press, 1969) 266.
135. M. Foucault, The Order of Things (New York: Vintage, 1973).
136. E. Gelner, Plough, Sword, and Book (London: Collins Harvill, 1988).
137. See Elliott, Plough, Sword, and Book 59 at 94, 112, 150
138. Goode, Plough, Sword, and Book 59 at 277
139. K. MacDonald, The Sociology of the Professions (London: Sage, 1995)
140. T. Murray, R. Dingwall & J. Eekelaar, “Professions in Bureaucracies: Solicitors in Private Practice and Local Government” in R. Dingwall & P. Lewis, eds., The Sociology of the Professions (London: MacMillan, 1983) 197.
141. K. Mannheim, Ideology and Utopia, trans. E. Shils, (New York: Harcourt-Brace, 1936).
142. See also D. Cheal, “The One and the Many: Modernity and Post-modernity” in Richardson, ed., Ideology and Utopia 43, 52 who argues in a different context that academic and professional theories about the family often follow social changes in family life.
143. J. Bowlky, Child Care and the Growth of Love (Baltimore: Penguin, 1953).
144. T. Parsons & R. Bales, Family Socialization and Interaction Process (New York: Free Press, 1955).
145. Young v. Young, [1993] 4 S.C.R. 3
146. Linton v. Clarke (1994), 50 R.F.L. (3d) 8 (Ont. Ct. (Gen. Div.))
147. Linton v. Clarke (1995), 10 R.F.L. (4th) 92 (Ont. Ct. (Gen. Div.))
148. Richardson v. Gardner (1995), 11 R.F.L. (4th) 292 (Ont. Ct. (Prov. Div.))
149. Weaver v. Tate (1990), 28 R.F.L. (3d) 188 (Ont. C.A.).
150. Re Orr, [1933] O.R. 212 (Ont. C.A.).
151. “From Gender Specifity to Gender Neutrality”, Re Orr 41 at 382.
152. Gauci v. Gaud (1973), 9 R.F.L. 189 (Ont. H.C.J.) at 192.
153. “From Gender Specificity to Gender Neutrality?”, R.F.L. 68 126 at 133–34.
154. It is perhaps interesting to note that, in addition to discriminating against women who choose to pursue careers, this dominant social conceptualization–that women should exercise power in the private domain, leaving the public domain to men– also discriminated against men who did not fit the typical “heterosexual, father, wage-earner” conceptualization of “man” current at the time. See Collier, R.F.L. 43 for an interesting discussion of how law has characterized masculinity.
155. Department of Justice, Evaluation of Divorce Act, Phase 11: Monitoring and Evaluation (Ottawa: Bureau of Review, 1990)
156. Department of Justice, Evaluation of Divorce Act, Phase 11: Monitoring and Evaluation 14
157. G. Davis, Partisans and Mediators (Oxford: Clarendon, 1988)
158. G. Davis, S. Cretney & J. Collins, Simple Quarrels (Oxford: Clarendon, 1994)
159. H. Erlanger, E. Chambliss & M. Melli, “Participation and Flexibility in Informal Processes: Cautions from the Divorce Context” (1987) 21:4 Law and Society Review 585 P. H. Gulliver, Disputes and Negotiations: A Cross Cultural Perspective (New York: Academic, 1979) 223
160. R. Ingleby, Solicitors and Divorce (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992) at 32–33, 169–77
161. W. Felstiner & A. Sarat, “Negotiation Between Lawyer and Client in an American Divorce” in R. Dingwall & J. Eekelaar, eds., Divorce Mediation and the Legal Process (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988)
162. R. H. Mnookin & L. Kornhauser, “Bargaining in the Shadow of the Law: The Case of Divorce” (1979) 88 Yale L.J. 950.
163. Erlanger, Chambliss & Melli, Yale L.J.
164. A. Sarat and W. Felstiner, “Law and Strategy in the Divorce Lawyer's Office” (1986) 20:1 Law and Society Review 93.
165. J. Teachmen & K. Polonko, “Negotiating Divorce Outcomes: Can We Identify Patterns in Divorce Settlements?” (1990) 52 Journal of Marriage and the Family 129 at 135.
166. see Ingleby, Journal of Marriage and the Family 74 at 61.
167. Glendon, Journal of Marriage and the Family 42
168. Oakley, Journal of Marriage and the Family 43
169. Ursel, Journal of Marriage and the Family 42.
170. Talsky v. Talsky, [1976] 2 S.C.R. 293.
171. For example, the federal Divorce Act, 1985 in 1986
172. Alberta: Child Welfare Act 1984 S.A. 1984, c. C-8.1
173. British Columbia: Family Relations Act 1979, R.S.B.C. 1979, c. 121
174. Manitoba: The Child Custody Enforcement Act, R.S.M. 1987, c. C-360
175. New Brunswick: Family Services Act, S.N.B. 1980, c. C-2.1
176. Ontario: Family Law Reform Act 1986, c. 4
177. Prince Edward Island: The Custody Jurisdiction and Enforcement Act, R.S.P.E.I. 1988, c. C-33
178. Family Law Reform Act, R.S.P.E.I. 1988, c. F-3
179. Northwest Territories: Domestic Relations Act, R.S.N.W.T. 1988, c. D-8
180. Yukon: Children's Act, R.S.Y 1986, c. 22.
181. See Children's Act 41,42 and 44.
182. See Glendon, Children's Act 42
183. Ursel, Children's Act 42 at 292.
184. Children's Act.
185. See also Glendon, Children's Act 42 at 43.
186. B. Price & N. Sokoloff, The Criminal Justice System and Women (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1995) at 3.
187. “Overview”, The Criminal Justice System and Women 33
188. N. Naffine, Law and the Sexes Exploration in Feminist Jurisprudence (North Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1990).
189. “From Gender Specificity to Gender Neutrality”, Law and the Sexes Exploration in Feminist Jurisprudence 41
190. L. Haas, Equal Parenthood and Social Policy (New York: State University, 1992) at 3
191. H. Irving & M. Benjamin, “Shared Parenting In Canada: Questions, Answers, and Implications” (1986) 1:1 Family Law Quarterly 79
192. M. Lamb & A. Sagi, eds., Fatherhood and Family Policy, (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1983) at 3–4, 9
193. J. Lemmon, Family Mediation Practice (New York: Macmillan, 1985) at 114–120
194. M.Roman & S. Dichter, “Fathers and Feminism: Backlash Within the Women's Movement” (1985) 23:2 Conciliation Courts Review
195. R. Thompson, “The Father's Case in Child Custody Disputes: The Contradictions of Psychological Research” in Lamb and Sagi, eds., Conciliation Courts Review. 53.
196. Collier, Conciliation Courts Review 43 at 177–178, 180
197. Lamb & Sagi, Conciliation Courts Review
198. C. Smart, “Power and the Politics of Child Custody” in Smart, Conciliation Courts Review 711.
199. Boyd, Conciliation Courts Review 71 at 138
200. Smart, Conciliation Courts Review, at 10.
201. These provisions have affected mothers in theory, if not in practice. There is some debate about whether or not these statutory amendments have had an appreciable effect on the extent to which women are awarded or denied custody of children. See, for example, J. Pulkingham, “Private Troubles, Private Solutions: Poverty Among Divorced Women and the Politics of Support Enforcement and Child Custody Determinations” (1994) 9:2 Canadian Journal of Law and Society 73 at 90–91.
202. Generally, it appears that, while new social and professional assumptions about gender and the family were embedded in law, social and legal practices of the majority of families did not change. Despite the fact that the statutory provisions and judicial discourse became gender-neutral, children have continued to reside primarily with mothers after family separation and divorce. Department of Justice, Canadian Journal of Law and Society 73
203. Glendon, Canadian Journal of Law and Society 42
204. R. Warshak, The Custody Revolution (New York: Poseidon, 1992)
205. Pulkingham, The Custody Revolution. The practical outcome of custody and access disputes is not the only issue however. As mentioned earlier, the vast majority of family law cases are settled in negotiation processes. When thinking about women's power, then, the best indicator of women's power may be less the extent to which women are awarded custody than the extent to which women's bargaining power in family matters generally has or is being eroded as a result of the erosion of the legal assumption that women will prima facie acquire custody of children. It is possible that women have lost negotiating power while retaining, in practice, social responsibility for children.
206. For example C. Ahrons, “The Continuing Coparental Relationship Between Divorced Spouses” (1981) 51:3 American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 415
207. C. S. Bruch, “Parenting At and After Divorce: A Search for New Models” (1981) 79:1–4 Mich. L. Rev. 708
208. J. B. Grief, “Fathers, Children and Joint Custody” (1979) 49:2 American Journal of Orthophsychiatry 311
209. R. D. Hess & K. Camara, “Post-Divorce Family Relationships as Mediating Factors on the Consequences of Divorce for Children” (1979) 35:4 Journal of Social Issues 79
210. A. Hetherington, E. Cox & R. Cox, “Divorced fathers” (1976) 25 Family Coordinator 417
211. M. B. Isaacs, “The Visitation Schedule and Child Adjustment: A Three-Year Study” (1988) 27 Family Process 251.
212. See also one of the most influential books of the time, J. Wallerstein & J. Kelly, Surviving the Breakup: How Children and Parents Cope With Divorce (London: Grant Mclntyre, 1980).
213. See Surviving the Breakup: How Children and Parents Cope With Divorce.
214. See also G. Barnes, Working With Families (London: MacMillan Education, 1984)
215. J. Burnham & H. Queenie, “Systemic Family Therapy: The Milan Approach” in E. Street & W. Dryden, eds., Marital Therapy in Britain (Milton Keynes: Open University, 1988) 8
216. D. Campbell et al., Working With The Milan Method: Twenty Questions (London: Institute of Family Therapy, 1983)
217. H. Gadlin & P. Oulette, “Mediation Milanese: An Application of Systemic Therapy to Family Mediation” (1986–1987) 14–15 Mediation Quarterly 101
218. O. Manor, Social Work in Action: A Handbook for Social Workers (London: Tavistock, 1984)
219. S. Minuchin, Families and Family Therapy (London: Tavistock, 1974)
220. V. Satir, Helping Families to Change (New York: Aaronson, 1975)
221. A. Vetere, “Family Therapy Research” in Street & Dryden, eds., Helping Families to Change.
222. See, for example, A. Abarbanel, “Shared Parenting After Separation and Divorce: A Study of Joint Custody” (1979) 4:2 American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 320
223. M. E. Bowman & C. R. Ahrons, “Impact of Legal Custody on Father's Parenting Post Divorce” (1985) 47 Journal of Marriage and the Family 481
224. F. Ilfeld, H. Ilfeld & J. Alexander Jr., “Does Joint Custody Work? A First Look at Outcome Data of Relitigation” (1982) 139:1 American Journal of Psychiatry 62
225. M. B. Jackson, V. Hovespian & G. Ferrick, “Common Problems in The Mediation of Child Custody Disputes” (1984) 22:2 Conciliation Courts Review 21
226. J. Kelly, “Examining Resistance to Joint Custody” in J. Folberg, ed., Joint Custody and Shared Parenting (New York: Guilford, 1991)
227. D. Luepnitz, Child Custody: A Study of Families After Divorce (Lexington: Lexington, 1982)
228. E. Maccoby, C. Depner & R. Mnookin, Child Custody: A Study of Families After Divorce 12
229. V. Shiller, “Loyalty Conflicts and Family Relationships in Latency Age Boys: A Comparison of Joint and Maternal Custody” (1986) 9:4 Journal of Divorce 17. See also the joint custody studies listed in note 93.
230. “From Gender Specificity to Gender Neutrality?”, Journal of Divorce 41.
231. M. J. Mossman, “Family Law and Social Welfare in Canada” in J. Banfield, ed., Readings in Law and Society, Journal of Divorce 21,364 at 365.
232. S. Boyd, “Potentialities and Perils of the Primary Caregiver Presumption” (1990–1991) 1:30 Canadian Family Law Quarterly 1 at 3–4.
233. An examination of Canada's divorce rates for the period 1921 to 1979 discloses a divorce rate that increased from 6.4 (per 100,000 population) to a rate of 243.4 by 1978. See Statistics Canada, Divorce: Law and the Family in Canada (Ottawa: Supply & Services, 1983).
234. See also Glendon, Divorce: Law and the Family in Canada 42.
235. T. Duster, The Legislation of Morality (New York: Free Press, 1962) at 245.
236. In the late 1970s and throughout the 1980s, this perspective permeated the mediation and mental health literature. See B. Ahier, Conciliation, Divorce and the Probation Services (Norwich: Social Work Monographs, 1986) at 19
237. G. Barnes, Working With Families (London: MacMillan Education, 1984) at 47
238. N. Brown & M. Samis, “The Application of Structural Family Therapy in Developing the Binuclear Family” (1986) 14–15 Mediation Quarterly 67
239. J. Folberg, “Mediation of Child Custody Disputes” (1985) 19 Columbia Journal of Law and Social Problems 415
240. I. Goldberg & H. Goldberg, Family Therapy (Monterey: Brooks/Cole, 1985) at 42
241. J. Haynes, “A Conceptual Model of the Process of Family Mediation: Implications for Training” (1984) 2 Family Studies Yearbook 507
242. H. Irving & M. Benjamin, Family Mediation: Theory and Practice of Dispute Resolution (Toronto: Carswell 1987) at 60
243. S. Kaplan, “The Development and Operation of the Northwest Mediation Service” (1984) 6 Mediation Quarterly 75
244. E. Koopman, “Family Mediation: A Development Perspective on the Field” in D. Sandole & I. Sandole-Staroste, eds., Conflict Management and Problem Solving: Interpersonal to International Applications (London: Frances Pinter, 1987) 119 at 121
245. P. Maida, “Components of Bowen's Family Theory and Divorce Mediation” (1986) Mediation Quarterly 57
246. M. Robinson & L. Parkinson, “A Family System's Approach to Conciliation in Separation and Divorce” (1985) 7 Journal of Family Therapy 357
247. S. Steir & N. Hamilton, “Teaching Divorce Mediation: Creating a Better Fit Between Family Systems and the Legal System” (1984) 48 Albany L. Rev. 741
248. S. White & K. Mika, “Family Divorce and Separation: Theory and Research” (1983) Marriage and Family Review 187.
249. Marriage and Family Review.
250. L'Heureux-Dube J. in Young v. Young, Marriage and Family Review 66.
251. Glendon, Marriage and Family Review 42
252. Statistics Canada, Marriage and Family Review 97 at 251–258.
253. S. Rhode, “Feminist Perspectives on Legal Ideology” in J. Mitchel & A. Oakley, eds., What Is Feminism (New York: Pantheon, 1986)
254. C. Littleton, “Equality and Feminist Legal Theory” (1987) 48 U. Pitt. L. Rev. 1043
255. “Overview,” U. Pitt. L. Rev. 33.
256. Department of Justice, U. Pitt. L. Rev. 14 at 10–12.
257. E. Mensch, “The History of Mainstream Legal Thought” in D. Kairys, ed., U. Pitt. L. Rev. 30 at 13
258. “Overview”, U. Pitt. L. Rev. 33
259. Naffine, U. Pitt. L. Rev. 86.
260. See, for example, E. Nett, “Family Study in Canada During Sociology's Shifts from RC to PC to DC” (1996) 33:1 Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology 24
261. Richardson, Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology 43.
262. See, for example, Canadian Institute for the Administration of Justice (1996) 6:3 CIAJ Newsletter.
263. Richardson, Canadian Institute for the Administration of Justice 43 at 37.
264. See, for example, C. Buchanan, E. Maccoby & S. Dornbusch, “Caught Between Parents: Adolescents' Experience in Divorced Homes” (1991) 26 Child Development 1008
265. Calm, Child Development 10
266. B. E. Carlson, “Adolescent Observers of Marital Violence” (1990) 5:4 Journal of Violence 285
267. L. Davis & B. Carlson, “Observation of Spouse Abuse: What Happens to the Children?” (1987) 2:3 Journal of Interpersonal Violence 278
268. R. Emery, “Interparental Conflict and the Children of Discord and Divorce” (1982) 92:2 Psychological Bulletin 310
269. J. Fantuzzo & C. Lindquist, “The Effects of Observing Conjugal Violence on Children: A Review and Analysis of Research Methodology” (1989) 4:1 Journal of Family Violence 77
270. B. Forstrom-Cohen & A. Rosenbaum, “The Effects of Parental Marital Violence on Young Adults: An Exploratory Investigation” (1985) 47 Journal of Marriage and the Family 467
271. P. Jaffe et al., “Similarities in Behavioral and Social Maladjustment Among Child Victims and Witnesses to Family Violence” (1985) 56 American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 142
272. Johnston, Gonzalez & Campbell, American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 11
273. Johnston, Kline & Tschann, American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 10
274. D. Shaw & R. Emery, “Parental Conflict and Other Correlates of the Adjustment of School-Age Children Whose Parents Have Separated” (1987) 15:2 Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 269
275. M. Shepard, “Child Visiting and Domestic Abuse” (1992) 71 Child Welfare 357.
276. Compare for example, the views of Johnston, Kline & Tschann, Child Welfare 10
277. M. Pagelow, Child Welfare 10 at 347–63 with those expressed in E. Maccoby et al, Dividing the Child: Social and Legal Dilemmas of Custody (Stanford: Harvard University Press, 1992)
278. R. Straus & E. Alda, “Supervised Child Access: The Evolution of a Social Science” (1992) 32:2 Family and Conciliation Courts Review at 235.
279. For an informative discussion of the debate, see R. P. Dobash et al, “The Myth of Sexual Symmetry in Marital Violence” (1992) 39 Social Problems 71.
280. Straus & Gelles, Social Problems 6
281. M. Straus & R. Gelles, eds., Physical Violence in American Families: Risk Factors and Adaptations to Violence in 8,145 Families (New Brunswick: Transaction, 1990).
282. For example, Dobash et al., Physical Violence in American Families: Risk Factors and Adaptations to Violence in 8,145 Families 111.
283. See Physical Violence in American Families: Risk Factors and Adaptations to Violence in 8,145 Families 6.
284. Physical Violence in American Families: Risk Factors and Adaptations to Violence in 8,145 Families
285. Physical Violence in American Families: Risk Factors and Adaptations to Violence in 8,145 Families 6.
286. S. Sopp-Gilson, “Children From Violent Homes” (1980) 23:10 Journal, Ontario's Association of Children's Aid Societies 1
287. “Women and Children at Risk,” Journal, Ontario's Association of Children's Aid Societies 13
288. Saunders, Journal, Ontario's Association of Children's Aid Societies 13.
289. Saunders, Journal, Ontario's Association of Children's Aid Societies, at 152, reports that slightly more than one third of battered women report battering their children.
290. See also “Women and Children at Risk,” Journal, Ontario's Association of Children's Aid Societies.
291. Department of Justice, Journal, Ontario's Association of Children's Aid Societies 14.
292. Davis, Cretney & Collins, Journal, Ontario's Association of Children's Aid Societies 74
293. Ingleby, Journal, Ontario's Association of Children's Aid Societies 74.
294. Journal, Ontario's Association of Children's Aid Societies.
295. See also L. Clark, “Wife Battery and Determinations of Custody and Access: A Comparison of U.S. and Canadian Findings” (1990) 22:3 Ottawa L. Rev. 694.
296. Ottawa L. Rev. 74 and 77.
297. Ottawa L. Rev. There is a need for still more research on the relationships between formal law and the legal practices of parties, lawyers, and mediators.
298. From and including vol. 30 of the second series, to and including (1996) 17 F.L.R. (4th) series.
299. Clark, 17 F.L.R. 121, found only 14 cases between 1980 and 1990 indexed to spousal violence or abuse and a custody and access dispute in the Canadian Reports on Family Law series. We did not rely on indexing or headnotes but scanned the family law cases in their entirety. Consequently, we uncovered 113 cases that discussed both partner abuse and child issues during the same period.
300. Lynch v. Lynch (1995), 12 R.F.L. (4th) 367 (Ont. Ct. (Gen. Div.)).
301. Aviles v. Aviles (1988), 17 R.F.L. (3d) 393 (Sask. Q.B.) at 394.
302. Ellis, R.F.L. 6.
303. C. E. Depner, K. Cannata & M. B. Simon, “Building a Uniform Statistical Reporting System: A Snapshot Study of California Family Court Services” (1992) 30 Family and Conciliation Court Review 185
304. L. Newmark, A. Harrell & P. Salem, Domestic Violence and Empowerment in Custody and Visitation Cases: An Empirical Study of the Impact of Domestic Abuse (Maddison, Wis.: Association of Family and Conciliation Courts, 1994).
305. See also Clark, Domestic Violence and Empowerment in Custody and Visitation Cases: An Empirical Study of the Impact of Domestic Abuse 121 at 694
306. Davis, Cretney & Collins, Domestic Violence and Empowerment in Custody and Visitation Cases: An Empirical Study of the Impact of Domestic Abuse 74.
307. See also Clark, Domestic Violence and Empowerment in Custody and Visitation Cases: An Empirical Study of the Impact of Domestic Abuse, at 694. In New Brunswick, in affiliation with the Muriel McQueen Fergusson Centre for Family Violence Research at the University of New Brunswick, we have formed a multidisciplinary research team composed of sociologists, lawyers, psychologists, and social workers to explore these pretrial negotiation processes and also the implications for family members of legal decisions made in these circumstances.
308. See Domestic Violence and Empowerment in Custody and Visitation Cases: An Empirical Study of the Impact of Domestic Abuse 74.
309. Brigante v. Brigante (1991), 32 R.F.L. (3d) 299 (Ont. Unif. Fam. Ct.) at 302.
310. Richardson v. Gardner, R.F.L. 66.
311. McColl v. McColl (1995),13 R.F.L. (4th) 449 (Ont. Ct. (Gen. Div.)).
312. Savidant v. MacLeod (1992), 40 R.F.L. (3d) 443 (P.E.I. S.C.A.D.) at 445.
313. Savidant v. MacLeod (1991), 32 R.F.L. (3d) 266 (P.E.I. S.C.T.D.) at 266–267.
314. J. Murphy, “Lawyering for Social Change: The Power of the Narrative in Domestic Violence Law Reform” (1993) 21:4 Hofstra L. Rev. 1243.
315. Cerget v. Cerget (1995), 7 R.F.L. (4th) 322 (Ont. Ct. (Gen. Div.))at 326.
316. Bendle v. Bendle (1985), 48 R.F.L. (2d) 120 (Ont Prov. Ct. (Fam. Div.)) at 123.
317. In addition to the cases quoted below, see R.F.L.
318. Despatie v. Larouche (1984), 36 R.F.L. (2d) 30 (Que. Sup. C)
319. Dupont v. Dupont (1993), 47 R.F.L. (3d) 273
320. Richardson v. Gardner, R.F.L. 66 at 306.
321. Cain v. Cain (1983), 33 R.F.L. (2d) 353 (Sask. Q.B.) at 358.
322. See also R. Langer, “Male Domestic Abuse: The Continuing Contrast Between Women's Experiences and Judicial Responses” (1995) 10:1 C.J.L.S. 65.
323. In addition to W. (K.M.) v. W. (D.D.) (1993), 47 R.F.L. (3d) 378 (Ont. Ct. (Prov. Div.))
324. see also Bendle v. Bendle, R.F.L. 143
325. Sort v. Poppelwell (1988), 13 R.F.L. (3d) 192 (Sask. Q.B.)
326. Cain v. Cain, R.F.L. 145
327. Duller v. Duller (1989), 18 R.F.L. (3d) (Ont. H.C.J.) (3d) 53
328. Dupont v. Dupont, R.F.L. 144
329. Ellert v. Ellen (1982), 30 R.F.L. (2d) 257 (Sask. Q.B.)
330. Metz v. Metz (1991), 35 R.F.L. (3d) 437 (Sask. Q.B.)
331. Nouveau-Brunswick v.F(C) (1995), 14 R.F.L. (4th) 392 (N.B. C.A.)
332. Richardson v. Gardner, R.F.L. 66
333. Abdo v. Abdo (1993), 50 R.F.L. (3d) 171 (N.S. S.C. A.D.). These cases were heard at the Supreme Court, not at the Court of Appeal level. When a court of appeal overrules a lower court after it has treated a mother (or anyone for that matter) unfairly, it revises the law to the advantage of those who apply to the court in the future but this does little to remedy the harm already done.
334. W. (K.M.) v. W. (D.D.) R.F.L., at 386.
335. Sort v. Poppelwell, R.F.L. 147.
336. Brigante v. Brigante, R.F.L. 135
337. Filipe v. Filipe (1995) 14 R.F.L. (4th) 378 (B.C. S.C.). The judge discounted the mother's evidence of abuse in the Brigante case.
338. But see also Jarrett v. Jarrett (1995), 10 R.F.L. (4th) 24 (Ont. Ct. (Gen. Div.))
339. MacGuyver v. Richards (1995), 11 F.L.R. (4th) 432 (Ont. C.A.).
340. Filipe v. Filipe, F.L.R., at 381.
341. F.L.R., at 381.
342. See for example L. Timmins, ed., Listening to the Thunder (Vancouver: Women's Research Centre, 1995).
343. R. H. Rahe, J. D. McKean & R. J. Arthur, “A Longitudinal Study of Life Changes and Illness Patterns” (1967) 10 Journal of Psychosomatic Research 355.
344. See also Barrett v. Barrett (1989), 18 R.F.L. (3d) 186 (Nfld. S.C.T.D.)
345. Brigante v. Brigante, R.F.L. 135
346. Burk v. Burk (1991), 34 R.F.L. (3d) 27 (Ont. Unif. Fam. Ct.)
347. Ellert v. Ellert, R.F.L. 147
348. Fanning v. Fanning (1990), 24 R.F.L. (3d) 135 (N.S. S.C.T.D.)
349. Foggo v. Foggo (1984), 40 R.F.L. (2d) 129 (Ont. H.C.J.)
350. Fullarton v. Fullarton (1994), 7 R.F.L. (4th) 272 (N.B. Q.B. (Fam. Div.))
351. Howe v. Howe (1988), 16 R.F.L. (3d) 387 (N.B. Q.B. (Fam. Div.))
352. Reid v. Reid (1985), 45 R.F.L. (2d) 173 (B.C. S.C.)
353. Whiffen v. Buckoltz (1987), 7 R.F.L. (3d) 77 9 (B.C. S.C.). Some of the cases were resolved by judicial order after a contested hearing; others were judicial endorsements of agreements reached. I have not distinguished between them because it is my belief that the legal system bears some responsibility for the consequences in both case.
354. Barrett v. Barrett, R.F.L., at 197.
355. Fanning v. Fanning, R.F.L. 156 at 138.
356. Young v. Young (1989), 19 R.F.L. (3d) 227 (Ont. H.C.J.). The father was granted liberal access.
357. Cairns v.Cairns (1994), 3 R.F.L. (4th) 397 (N.B. Q.B. (Fam. Div.))
358. Savidant v. MacLeod, R.F.L. 139
359. Whiffen v. Buckoltz, R.F.L. 156
360. C. (R.M.) v. C(J. R.) (1995), 12 R.F.L. (4th) 440 (B.C. S.C.)
361. Deane v. Deane (1995), 14 R.F.L. (4th) 55 (Ont. Ct. (Gen. Div.)).
362. C. (R. M.) v. C. (J. R.), R.F.L.
363. Metz v. Metz, resulting in 42 pre-Divorce Act, 1985 and 93 post-Divorce Act, 1985 147.
364. Abdo v. Abdo, resulting in 42 pre-Divorce Act, 1985 and 93 post-Divorce Act, 1985 147 at 188.
365. See also Dolgopol v. Dolgopol (1995), 10 R.F.L. (4th) 368 (Sask. Q.B.).
366. R.F.L. 156
367. Scono v. Scono (1984), 41 R.F.L. (2d) 57 (Ont. H.C.J.)
368. T.W.D. v. Y.M.D. (1989), 20 R.F.L. (3d) 183 (N.S. S.C.T.D.). The fact that this consideration does not appear in the discourse does not mean, necessarily, that it was not considered. It is more likely than not that if one were to interview judges, privately, after deciding family law cases, it would be found that there are many matters judges take into account when deciding cases that are never articulated in a formal manner.
369. See also Beck v. Bahillie (1994), 2 R.F.L. (4th) 91
370. (N.W.T. S.C.). D. (D.L.) v. W. (R.J.) (1995), 10 R.F.L. (4th) 130 (Sask. Q.B.).
371. Sherry v. Sherry (1994), 1 R.F.L. (4th) 146 at 155 9P.E.I. S.C.T.D.).
372. See also.S. Boyd, “(Re)Placing the State: Family, Law and Oppression” (1994) 9:1 C.J.L.S. 39
373. Judges are expressing concern that requirements to consider conduct would simply encourage litigation. See, for example, F. (T.R.) v. S. (P.K.) (1994), 1 R.F.L. (4th) 134 (Alta Q.B.) at 140.
374. See also Langer, R.F.L. 146.
375. S. Cretney, Principles of Family Law, 4th ed. (London: Sweet & Maxwell, 1984) 331–332
376. “From Gender Specificity to Gender Neutrality,” Principles of Family Law 41
377. Glendon, Principles of Family Law 42
378. Statistics Canada, Principles of Family Law 97 at 251–258
379. Shanley, Principles of Family Law 47 at 39–40
380. Young v. Young, Principles of Family Law 166.
381. A statutory bias in favour of women has the potential to create other sorts of injustices in individual cases. See for example Scullion v. Scullion (1995), 12 R.F.L. (4th) 421 (N.B. Q.B. (Fam. Div.)).
382. For example Galanter, R.F.L. 37
383. Brooke, R.F.L. 19.
384. Galanter, R.F.L. at 268.
385. Despite the new provisions of the Divorce Act, 1986 endorsing maximum contact and directing judges not to consider parental conduct in awarding custody and access, the reported cases indicate that this did not result in children being left with abusers more often. See also Clark, R.F.L. 121
386. also Pulkingham, R.F.L. 90 at 90–91. Prior to the implementation of the Divorce Act, 1986, in 23.8% of the cases examined, joint or sole custody of children was awarded to, or left with, an abusive parent (usually the father). After the implementation of the Divorce Act, that figure dropped to 16.1%. Similarly, awards of access to abusers in the reported cases decreased slightly and denials of access to abusers increased slightly (59.5% of the cases awarded abusers access to their children prior to the Divorce Act, 55.9% after 16.7% of the cases denied abusers access to their children prior to the Divorce Act, 28% after.
387. While it is not possible to claim that these figures are significant, since there is no way of knowing how representative they are, they do suggest that the statutory changes did not markedly affect judicial practice. Others have noted a similar phenomenon with respect to changes to child custody law, generally. See Clark and Pulkingham, R.F.L.
388. For references to the psychological literature on this point, see R.F.L. 11.
389. Divorce Act, 1985, R.F.L. 80, s. 16(10).
390. Young v. Young, R.F.L. 159 at 235.
391. Tramble v. Hill (1987), 7 R.F.L. (3d) 85 (Ont. Unif. Fam.Ct.) at 88.
392. Alexander v. Creary (1995), 14 R.F.L. (4th) 311 (Ont. Ct. (Prov. Div.)).
393. Cairns v. Cairns, R.F.L. 160 at 401. Here also we find the court referring to professional “expertise” in order to justify the decision.
394. Abdo v. Abdo, R.F.L. 147 at 188.
395. (1995) 15 R.F.L. (4th) 90 (B.C. S.C.) at 92.
396. R.F.L., at 93.
397. R.F.L. 16.
398. See also Maccoby, Depner & Mnookin, R.F.L. 121.
399. Boyd, Boyd, R.F.L. 170
400. L. Snider, “Feminism, Punishment, and the Potential For Empowerment” (1994) 9:1 C.J.L.S. 75
401. M. Valverde et al. ed., Wife Assault and the Canadian Criminal Justice System (Toronto: University of Toronto, 1995).
402. J. Bakan, “Constitutional Interpretation and Social Change: You Can't Always Get What You Want (Nor What You Need)” in Banfield, ed., Wife Assault and the Canadian Criminal Justice System 21 177
403. D. Majury, “Equality and Discrimination According to the Supreme Court” in Banfield, ed., Wife Assault and the Canadian Criminal Justice System 21, 184.
404. See also Wife Assault and the Canadian Criminal Justice System 22.
405. Galanter, Wife Assault and the Canadian Criminal Justice System 37.
406. Snider, Wife Assault and the Canadian Criminal Justice System 189
407. P. Rosen, The Supreme Court and Social Science (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1972)
408. B. Wilson, “Judicial Decision-Making and the Charter” in Banfield, ed., The Supreme Court and Social Science 21, 204.
409. C. Baar, “Criminal Court Delay and the Charter: The Use and the Misuse of Social Facts in Judicial Policy Making” (1993) 72:3 Can. Bar Rev. 305.