Visible-light-responsive graphitic carbon nitride: Rational design and photocatalytic applications for water treatment

Environmental Science and Technology

Volumn 50, Issue 23, 2016, Pages 12938-12948

  Zheng, Qinmin ^a   Durkin, David P ^b   Elenewski, Justin E ^c   Sun, Yingxue ^a,d   Banek, Nathan A ^c   Hua, Likun ^f   Chen, Hanning ^c   Wagner, Michael J ^c   Zhang, Wen ^e   Shuai, Danmeng ^a  

^a The George Washington University   (United States)

^b JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c GEORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^d BEIJING TECHNOLOGY AND BUSINESS UNIVERSITY   (China)

^e NEW JERSEY INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY   (United States)

^f NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BIODEGRADATION; CONTAMINATION; DENSITY FUNCTIONAL THEORY; DESIGN FOR TESTABILITY; GRAPHITIC CARBON NITRIDE; IRRADIATION; LIGHT; PHOSPHORUS; PHOTOCATALYTIC ACTIVITY; WASTEWATER TREATMENT; WATER CONSERVATION;

CONTAMINANT DEGRADATION; DEGRADATION OF PHENOLS; INTERFACIAL INTERACTION; ORGANIC MICRO-POLLUTANTS; PHOTOCATALYTIC APPLICATION; PHOTOCATALYTIC OXIDATIONS; THERMODYNAMICALLY STABLE; VISIBLE LIGHT RESPONSIVE;

WATER TREATMENT;

CARBON; GRAPHITE; GRAPHITIC CARBON NITRIDE; MELAMINE; NONMETAL; PHENOL; PHOSPHORUS; POLYMER; REACTIVE OXYGEN METABOLITE; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; WATER; PHENOL DERIVATIVE;

CATALYSIS; CATALYST; CHEMICAL COMPOUND; CONCENTRATION (COMPOSITION); DEGRADATION; DESIGN METHOD; IRRADIATION; NONMETAL; OXIDATION; PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANT; POLLUTANT REMOVAL; PURIFICATION; REACTION RATE; REACTIVE OXYGEN SPECIES; THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTY; VISIBLE SPECTRUM; WASTEWATER TREATMENT;

ARTICLE; DEGRADATION; DENSITY FUNCTIONAL THEORY; LIGHT; OXIDATION; PHOTOCATALYSIS; SIMULATION; SUNLIGHT; SUPRAMOLECULAR CHEMISTRY; SURFACE AREA; THERMODYNAMICS; THERMOSTABILITY; WASTE WATER MANAGEMENT; WATER POLLUTANT; CATALYSIS; CHEMISTRY; WATER MANAGEMENT;

CATALYSIS; GRAPHITE; LIGHT; PHENOLS; WATER PURIFICATION;

EID: 85008946173     PISSN: 0013936X     EISSN: 15205851     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b02579     Document Type: Article

References (113)

1. Occurrence of contaminants of emerging concern in wastewater from nine publicly owned treatment works. EPA 821-R-09-009; Office of Water, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC, 2009.
2. Treating contaminants of emerging concern: A literature review database. EPA-820-R-10-002; Office of Water, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC, 2010.
3. Oulton, R. L.; Kohn, T.; Cwiertny, D. M. Pharmaceuticals and personal care products in effluent matrixes: A survey of transformation and removal during wastewater treatment and implications for wastewater management. J. Environ. Monit. 2010, 12 (11), 1956−1978.
4. Pharmaceuticals in drinking-water. World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2012.
5. Homem, V.; Santos, L. Degradation and removal methods of antibiotics from aqueous matrixes - A review. J. Environ. Manage. 2011, 92 (10), 2304−2347.
6. polymeric carbon nitride nanohybrids made of sustainable elements. Chem. Sci. 2012, 3 (2), 443−446.
7. 4) by alkaline hydrothermal treatment for photocatalytic NO oxidation in gas phase. J. Mater. Chem. A 2013, 1 (21), 6489−6496.
8. Ayan-Varela, M.; Villar-Rodil, S.; Paredes, J. I.; Munuera, J. M.; Pagan, A.; Lozano-Perez, A. A.; Cenis, J. L.; Martinez-Alonso, A.; Tascon, J. M. D. Investigating the dispersion behavior in solvents, biocompatibility, and use as support for highly efficient metal catalysts of exfoliated graphitic carbon nitride. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2015, 7 (43), 24032−24045.
9. Prieto-Rodríguez, L.; Oller, I.; Klamerth, N.; Agüera, A.; Rodríguez, E. M.; Malato, S. Application of solar AOPs and ozonation for elimination of micropollutants in municipal wastewater treatment plant effluents. Water Res. 2013, 47 (4), 1521−1528.
10. Hoffmann, M. R.; Martin, S. T.; Choi, W. Y.; Bahnemann, D. W. Environmental applications of semiconductor photocatalysis. Chem. Rev. 1995, 95 (1), 69−96.
11. 4 fabricated by directly heating melamine. Langmuir 2009, 25 (17), 10397−10401.
12. Chu, S.; Wang, Y.; Guo, Y.; Feng, J.; Wang, C.; Luo, W.; Fan, X.; Zou, Z. Band structure engineering of carbon nitride: In search of a polymer photocatalyst with high photooxidation property. ACS Catal. 2013, 3 (5), 912−919.
13. Pelaez, M.; Nolan, N. T.; Pillai, S. C.; Seery, M. K.; Falaras, P.; Kontos, A. G.; Dunlop, P. S. M.; Hamilton, J. W. J.; Byrne, J. A.; O’Shea, K.; Entezari, M. H.; Dionysiou, D. D. A review on the visible light active titanium dioxide photocatalysts for environmental applications. Appl. Catal., B 2012, 125, 331−349.
14. 3 as an environmental photocatalyst that generates OH radicals under visible light. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2010, 44 (17), 6849−6854.
15. 4 semiconductor photocatalyst: Possibilities and challenges. J. Nanomater. 2013, 2013, 1−8.
16. Huang, Z.; Pan, L.; Zou, J.; Zhang, X.; Wang, L. Nanostructured bismuth vanadate-based materials for solar-energy-driven water oxidation: A review on recent progress. Nanoscale 2014, 6 (23), 14044−14063.
17. Ye, L.; Su, Y.; Jin, X.; Xie, H.; Zhang, C. Recent advances in BiOX (X = Cl, Br and I) photocatalysts: Synthesis, modification, facet effects and mechanisms. Environ. Sci.: Nano 2014, 1 (2), 90−112.
18. Jun, Y.; Lee, E. Z.; Wang, X.; Hong, W. H.; Stucky, G. D.; Thomas, A. From melamine-cyanuric acid supramolecular aggregates to carbon nitride hollow spheres. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2013, 23 (29), 3661−3667.
19. 4 core-shell nanoplates with excellent visible-light responsive photocatalysis. Nanoscale 2014, 6 (9), 4830− 4842.
20. Liu, J.; Zhang, T.; Wang, Z.; Dawson, G.; Chen, W. Simple pyrolysis of urea into graphitic carbon nitride with recyclable adsorption and photocatalytic activity. J. Mater. Chem. 2011, 21 (38), 14398−14401.
21. 2+. Nanoscale 2014, 6 (3), 1406−1415.
22. 2 in phenazopyridine photo-degradation: Catalyst efficiency, stability and feasibility assessment. J. Hazard. Mater. 2010, 173 (1−3), 318−325.
23. 2 for photocatalytic degradation of 4-chlorophenol. J. Hazard. Mater. 2004, 114 (1−3), 183−190.
24. Cates, E. L.; Chinnapongse, S. L.; Kim, J.; Kim, J. Engineering light: Advances in wavelength conversion materials for energy and environmental technologies. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46 (22), 12316−12328.
25. Hu, Y.; Gao, X.; Yu, L.; Wang, Y.; Ning, J.; Xu, S.; Lou, X. W. Carbon-coated CdS petalous nanostructures with enhanced photostability and photocatalytic activity. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2013, 52 (21), 5636−5639.
26. Cui, Y.; Ding, Z.; Fu, X.; Wang, X. Construction of conjugated carbon nitride nanoarchitectures in solution at low temperatures for photoredox catalysis. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2012, 51 (47), 11814− 11818.
27. Maeda, K.; Wang, X.; Nishihara, Y.; Lu, D.; Antonietti, M.; Domen, K. Photocatalytic activities of graphitic carbon nitride powder for water reduction and oxidation under visible light. J. Phys. Chem. C 2009, 113 (12), 4940−4947.
28. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Reference solar spectral irradiance: Air mass 1.5. http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/spectra/am1.5/ (accessed April 4, 2016).
29. Cao, S.; Low, J.; Yu, J.; Jaroniec, M. Polymeric photocatalysts based on graphitic carbon nitride. Adv. Mater. 2015, 27 (13), 2150− 2176.
30. 4. Energy Environ. Sci. 2011, 4 (8), 2922−2929.
31. Huang, J.; Ho, W.; Wang, X. Metal-free disinfection effects induced by graphitic carbon nitride polymers under visible light illumination. Chem. Commun. 2014, 50 (33), 4338−4340.
32. 4 and its high performance of photocatalytic disinfection under visible light irradiation. Appl. Catal., B 2014, 152, 46−50.
33. 4 nanosheets cowrapped elemental alpha-sulfur as a novel metal-free heterojunction photocatalyst for bacterial inactivation under visible-light. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013, 47 (15), 8724−8732.
34. Shalom, M.; Inal, S.; Fettkenhauer, C.; Neher, D.; Antonietti, M. Improving carbon nitride photocatalysis by supramolecular preorga-nization of monomers. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2013, 135 (19), 7118−7121.
35. Shalom, M.; Guttentag, M.; Fettkenhauer, C.; Inal, S.; Neher, D.; Llobet, A.; Antonietti, M. In situ formation of heterojunctions in modified graphitic carbon nitride: Synthesis and noble metal free photocatalysis. Chem. Mater. 2014, 26 (19), 5812−5818.
36. Jun, Y.; Park, J.; Lee, S. U.; Thomas, A.; Hong, W. H.; Stucky, G. D. Three-dimensional macroscopic assemblies of low-dimensional carbon nitrides for enhanced hydrogen evolution. Angew. Chem. 2013, 125 (42), 11289−11293.
37. Ishida, Y.; Chabanne, L.; Antonietti, M.; Shalom, M. Morphology control and photocatalysis enhancement by the one-pot synthesis of carbon nitride from preorganized hydrogen-bonded supramolecular precursors. Langmuir 2014, 30 (2), 447−451.
38. Zhang, J.; Grzelczak, M.; Hou, Y.; Maeda, K.; Domen, K.; Fu, X.; Antonietti, M.; Wang, X. Photocatalytic oxidation of water by
39. 4 by self-assembly
40. towards high photocatalytic performance. ChemCatChem 2014, 6 (12), 3419−3425.
41. Jordan, T.; Fechler, N.; Xu, J.; Brenner, T. J.; Antonietti, M.; Shalom, M. Caffeine doping” of carbon/nitrogen-based organic catalysts: Caffeine as a supramolecular edge modifier for the synthesis of photoactive carbon nitride tubes. ChemCatChem 2015, 7 (18), 2826−2830.
42. 5 nanoparticles by using self-assembled silica nanospheres as a primary template. Chem. - Asian J. 2011, 6 (1), 103−109.
43. Goettmann, F.; Fischer, A.; Antonietti, M.; Thomas, A. Chemical synthesis of mesoporous carbon nitrides using hard templates and their use as a metal-free catalyst for Friedel-Crafts reaction of benzene. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2006, 45 (27), 4467−4471.
44. 4)-based photocatalysts for artificial photosynthesis and environmental remediation: Are we a step closer to achieving sustainability? Chem. Rev. 2016, 116 (12), 7159−7329.
45. Niu, P.; Zhang, L.; Liu, G.; Cheng, H. Graphene-like carbon nitride nanosheets for improved photocatalytic activities. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2012, 22 (22), 4763−4770.
46. Shalom, M.; Inal, S.; Fettkenhauer, C.; Neher, D.; Antonietti, M. Improving carbon nitride photocatalysis by supramolecular preorga-nization of monomers. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2013, 135 (19), 7118−7121.
47. Guo, S.; Deng, Z.; Li, M.; Jiang, B.; Tian, C.; Pan, Q.; Fu, H. Phosphorus-doped carbon nitride tubes with a layered micro-nanostructure for enhanced visible-light photocatalytic hydrogen evolution. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2016, 55 (5), 1830−1834.
48. 4 nanostructured flowers with superior photocatalytic hydrogen evolution performance. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2015, 7 (30), 16850−16856.
49. 4. Chem. Commun. 2012, 48 (49), 6178−6180.
50. 4 via doping of nonmetal elements: A first-principles study. J. Phys. Chem. C 2012, 116 (44), 23485−23493.
51. Hohenberg, P.; Kohn, W. Inhomogeneous electron gas. Phys. Rev. 1964, 136, B864−B871.
52. Kohn, W.; Sham, L. J. Self-consistent equations including exchange and correlation effects. Phys. Rev. 1965, 140, A1133−A1138.
53. Hutter, J.; Iannuzzi, M.; Schiffmann, F.; VandeVondele, J. CP2K: Atomistic simulations of condensed matter systems. WIREs Comput. Mol. Sci. 2014, 4, 15−25.
54. Zhang, Y.; Antonietti, M. Photocurrent generation by polymeric carbon nitride solids: An initial step towards a novel photovoltaic system. Chem. - Asian J. 2010, 5 (6), 1307−1311.
55. Wang, X.; Chen, X.; Thomas, A.; Fu, X.; Antonietti, M. Metal-containing carbon nitride compounds: A new functional organic-metal hybrid material. Adv. Mater. 2009, 21 (16), 1609−1612.
56. Deifallah, M.; McMillan, P. F.; Cora, F. Electronic and structural properties of two-dimensional carbon nitride graphenes. J. Phys. Chem. C 2008, 112 (14), 5447−5453.
57. Yue, B.; Li, Q.; Iwai, H.; Kako, T.; Ye, J. Hydrogen production using zinc-doped carbon nitride catalyst irradiated with visible light. Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater. 2011, 12 (3), 034401.
58. 4 photocatalysts without using sacrificial agents. Chem. Sci. 2016, 7 (5), 3062−3066.
59. Zhang, J.; Chen, X.; Takanabe, K.; Maeda, K.; Domen, K.; Epping, J. D.; Fu, X.; Antonietti, M.; Wang, X. Synthesis of a carbon nitride structure for visible-light catalysis by copolymerization. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2010, 49 (2), 441−444.
60. Zhang, Y.; Mori, T.; Ye, J. Polymeric carbon nitrides: Semiconducting properties and emerging applications in photocatalysis and photoelectrochemical energy conversion. Sci. Adv. Mater. 2012, 4 (2), 282−291.
61. 2 evolution and rhodamine B degradation under visible light. J. Mater. Chem. A 2015, 3 (7), 3862−3867.
62. 2 production. Energy Environ. Sci. 2015, 8 (12), 3708−3717.
63. Zhang, Y.; Ligthart, D. A. J. M.; Quek, X.; Gao, L.; Hensen, E. J. M. Influence of Rh nanoparticle size and composition on the photocatalytic water splitting performance of Rh/graphitic carbon nitride. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2014, 39 (22), 11537−11546.
64. 4 composite under visible light. Appl. Catal., B 2016, 186, 77−87.
65. Wirth, J.; Neumann, R.; Antonietti, M.; Saalfrank, P. Adsorption and photocatalytic splitting of water on graphitic carbon nitride: A combined first principles and semiempirical study. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 2014, 16, 15917−15926.
66. 4. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 2015, 17 (2), 957−962.
67. Melissen, S.; Bahers, T. L.; Steinmann, S. N.; Sautet, P. Relationship between carbon nitride structure and exciton binding energies: A DFT perspective. J. Phys. Chem. C 2015, 119, 25188− 25196.
68. 3 photocatalysts studied by means of ESR spectroscopy and chemiluminescence photometry. J. Phys. Chem. C 2011, 115 (43), 21283−21290.
69. Teranishi, M.; Naya, S.; Tada, H. In situ liquid phase synthesis of hydrogen peroxide from molecular oxygen using gold nanoparticle-loaded titanium (IV) dioxide photocatalyst. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2010, 132 (23), 7850−7851.
70. Zhang, H.; Guo, L.; Zhao, L.; Wan, B.; Yang, Y. Switching oxygen reduction pathway by exfoliating graphitic carbon nitride for enhanced photocatalytic phenol degradation. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2015, 6 (6), 958−963.
71. Shiraishi, Y.; Kanazawa, S.; Kofuji, Y.; Sakamoto, H.; Ichikawa, S.; Tanaka, S.; Hirai, T. Sunlight-driven hydrogen peroxide production from water and molecular oxygen by metal-free photocatalysts. Angew. Chem. 2014, 126 (49), 13672−13677.
72. Zheng, D.; Pang, C.; Wang, X. The function-led design of Z-scheme photocatalytic systems based on hollow carbon nitride semiconductors. Chem. Commun. 2015, 51 (98), 17467−17470.
73. Zhang, Y.; Mori, T.; Ye, J.; Antonietti, M. Phosphorus-doped carbon nitride solid: Enhanced electrical conductivity and photocurrent generation. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2010, 132 (18), 6294−6295.
74. 2 nanofiber composites: Structure and reactivity optimization for water treatment applications. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2015, 49 (3), 1654−1663.
75. Chaplin, B. P.; Shapley, J. R.; Werth, C. J. Regeneration of sulfur-fouled bimetallic Pd-based catalysts. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2007, 41 (15), 5491−5497.
76. 4 layered materials as novel efficient visible light driven photocatalysts. J. Mater. Chem. 2011, 21 (39), 15171−15174.
77. Li, X.; Zhang, J.; Shen, L.; Ma, Y.; Lei, W.; Cui, Q.; Zou, G. Preparation and characterization of graphitic carbon nitride through pyrolysis of melamine. Appl. Phys. A: Mater. Sci. Process. 2009, 94 (2), 387−392.
78. Khabashesku, V. N.; Zimmerman, J. L.; Margrave, J. L. Powder synthesis and characterization of amorphous carbon nitride. Chem. Mater. 2000, 12 (11), 3264−3270.
79. Kundu, S.; Xia, W.; Busser, W.; Becker, M.; Schmidt, D. A.; Havenith, M.; Muhler, M. The formation of nitrogen-containing functional groups on carbon nanotube surfaces: A quantitative XPS and TPD study. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 2010, 12 (17), 4351−4359.
80. 2 photo-oxidation. J. Hazard. Mater. 1999, 64 (1), 91−104.
81. Antoniou, M. G.; Zhao, C.; O’Shea, K. E.; Zhang, G.; Dionysiou, D. D.; Zhao, C.; Han, C.; Nadagouda, M. N.; Choi, H.; Fotiou, T.; Triantis, T. M.; Hiskia, A. Photocatalytic Degradation of Organic Contaminants in Water: Process Optimization and Degradation Pathways; Royal Society of Chemistry: Croydon, CR0 4YY, U.K., 2016.
82. Raymundo-Piñero, E.; Cazorla-Amoros, D.; Linares-Solano, A.; Find, J.; Wild, U.; Schlögl, R. Structural characterization of N-containing activated carbon fibers prepared from a low softening point petroleum pitch and a melamine resin. Carbon 2002, 40 (4), 597−608.
83. Wilkinson, F.; Helman, W. P.; Ross, A. B. Rate constants for the decay and reactions of the lowest electronically excited singlet state of molecular oxygen in solution. An expanded and revised compilation. J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data 1995, 24 (2), 663−677.
84. Thomas, A.; Fischer, A.; Goettmann, F.; Antonietti, M.; Muller, J.; Schlogl, R.; Carlsson, J. M. Graphitic carbon nitride materials: Variation of structure and morphology and their use as metal-free catalysts. J. Mater. Chem. 2008, 18 (41), 4893−4908.
85. Bojdys, M. J.; Mueller, J.; Antonietti, M.; Thomas, A. Ionothermal synthesis of crystalline, condensed, graphitic carbon nitride. Chem. - Eur. J. 2008, 14 (27), 8177−8182.
86. − radicals in aqueous solution. J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data 1985, 14 (4), 1041−1100.
87. Xia, D.; Shen, Z.; Huang, G.; Wang, W.; Yu, J. C.; Wong, P. K. Red phosphorus: An earth-abundant elemental photocatalyst for ″green″ bacterial inactivation under visible light. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2015, 49 (10), 6264−6273.
88. Zhang, Y.; Liu, J.; Wu, G.; Chen, W. Porous graphitic carbon nitride synthesized via direct polymerization of urea for efficient sunlight-driven photocatalytic hydrogen production. Nanoscale 2012, 4 (17), 5300−5303.
89. 2 reduction under visible light. Catal. Sci. Technol. 2013, 3 (5), 1253−1260.
90. Wang, Y.; Di, Y.; Antonietti, M.; Li, H.; Chen, X.; Wang, X. Excellent visible-light photocatalysis of fluorinated polymeric carbon nitride solids. Chem. Mater. 2010, 22 (18), 5119−5121.
91. 2-production activity. J. Mater. Chem. 2011, 21 (38), 14655−14662.
92. 2 nanoparticles. ACS Catal. 2015, 5 (1), 327−335.
93. Fonash, S., Ed. Solar Cell Device Physics, 2nd ed.; Academic Press: 2010.
94. Brame, J.; Long, M.; Li, Q.; Alvarez, P. Trading oxidation power for efficiency: Differential inhibition of photo-generated hydroxyl radicals versus singlet oxygen. Water Res. 2014, 60, 259−266.
95. 4-catalyzed oxidation of benzene to phenol using hydrogen peroxide and visible light. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2009, 131 (33), 11658− 11659.
96. 2 photocatalytic oxidation and its effect on fouling of low-pressure membranes. Water Res. 2008, 42 (4−5), 1142−1150.
97. Neta, P.; Dorfman, L. M. Pulse radiolysis studies. XIII. Rate constants for the reaction of hydroxyl radicals with aromatic compounds in aqueous solutions. In Radiation Chemistry; American Chemical Society: 1968; Vol. 81, pp 222−230.
98. Haag, W. R.; Yao, C. C. D. Rate constants for reaction of hydroxyl radicals with several drinking-water contaminants. Environ. Sci. Technol. 1992, 26 (5), 1005−1013.
99. Brame, J.; Long, M.; Li, Q.; Alvarez, P. Inhibitory effect of natural organic matter or other background constituents on photocatalytic advanced oxidation processes: Mechanistic model development and validation. Water Res. 2015, 84, 362−371.
100. 2: Structural effects and their implications for solar energy conversion devices. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2015, 137 (30), 9670−9684.
101. Li, J.; Li, H.; Winget, P.; Bredas, J. Electronic structure of the perylene-zinc oxide interface: Computational study of photoinduced electron transfer and impact of surface defects. J. Phys. Chem. C 2015, 119 (33), 18843−18858.
102. Criquet, J.; Rodriguez, E. M.; Allard, S.; Wellauer, S.; Salhi, E.; Joll, C. A.; von Gunten, U. Reaction of bromine and chlorine with phenolic compounds and natural organic matter extracts - electrophilic aromatic substitution and oxidation. Water Res. 2015, 85, 476−486.
103. Calisto, V.; Domingues, M. R. M.; Erny, G. L.; Esteves, V. I. Direct photodegradation of carbamazepine followed by micellar electrokinetic chromatography and mass spectrometry. Water Res. 2011, 45 (3), 1095−1104.
104. Liu, P.; Zhang, H.; Feng, Y.; Shen, C.; Yang, F. Influence of spacer on rejection of trace antibiotics in wastewater during forward osmosis process. Desalination 2015, 371, 134−143.
105. 2 treatment. Sep. Purif. Technol. 2012, 96, 33−43.
106. Vongunten, U.; Hoigne, J. Bromate formation during ozonation of bromide-containing waters: Interaction of ozone and hydroxyl radical reactions. Environ. Sci. Technol. 1994, 28 (7), 1234− 1242.
107. 60 aminofullerene systems. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46 (17), 9606−9613.
108. Hayyan, M.; Hashim, M. A.; AlNashef, I. M. Superoxide ion: Generation and chemical implications. Chem. Rev. 2016, 116 (5), 3029−3085.
109. 4) photocatalyst activated by visible light. ACS Catal. 2014, 4 (3), 774−780.
110. Drinking water: Past, present, and future. EPA 816-F-00−002; Office of Water, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC, 2000.
111. Drinking water and ground water statistics, fiscal year 2011. HERO 2533123; Office of Water, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC, 2013.
112. Huber, M. M.; Canonica, S.; Park, G. Y.; Von Gunten, U. Oxidation of pharmaceuticals during ozonation and advanced oxidation processes. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2003, 37 (5), 1016−1024.
113. De, A. K.; Chaudhuri, B.; Bhattacharjee, S.; Dutta, B. K. Estimation of OH radical reaction rate constants for phenol and