Strength and Conditioning (Michael Stone Sub‐editor: Cadence and exercise: Physiological and biomechanical determinants of optimal cadences ‐practical applications

Sports Biomechanics

Volumn 2, Issue 1, 2003, Pages 103-132

  Marais, Gaëlle ^a   Pelayo, Patrick ^a  

^a UNIV LILLE   (France)

Author keywords

Cyclical activities; Imposed cadence; Optimal cadence; Spontaneously chosen cadence

Indexed keywords

EID: 85008841964     PISSN: 14763141     EISSN: 17526116     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/14763140308522811     Document Type: Article

References (87)

1. Ahlquist, L. E., Basset, D. R., Sufit R., Nagle, F. J., and Thomas, D. P. (1992). The effect of pedaling frequency on glycogen depletion rates in type I and type II quadriceps muscle fibres during submaximal cycling exercise. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 65, 360-364.
2. Amstrong, D. F., and Peterson, D. F. (1981). Patterns of glycogen loss in muscle fibres: response to arterial occlusion during exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology, 51, 552-556.
3. Astrand, P. O., and Rodahl, K. (1977). Précis de Physiologic Paris: Masson.
4. Balreich, R., and Gabel, H. (1975). Influence de la longueur et de la fréquence de la foulée sur la performance en sprint. Traduction INSEP Leitungssport, 5, 346-351.
5. Banister, E. W., and Jackson, R. C. (1967). The effect of speed and load changes on oxygen intake for equivalent power output during bicycle ergometry. International Zeitung Angew Physiologie einschl Arbeitsphysiologie, 24, 284-290.
6. Böning, D., Gönen, Y., and Maassen, N. (1984). Relationship between workload, pedal frequency, and physical fitness. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 5, 92-97.
7. Brisswalter, J., Hausswirth, C., Smith, D., Vercruyssen, F., and Vallier, J. M. (1999). Energetically optimal cadence vs. Freely chosen cadence during cycling: effect of exercise duration. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 20, 60-64.
8. Cavagna, G. A., Willems, P. A., Franzetti, P., and Detrembleur, C. (1991). Thetwo power limit conditioning step frequency in human running. Journal of Physiology-London, 437, 95-108.
9. Cavagna, G. A., Mantovani, M., Willems, P. A., and Musch, G. (1997). The resonant step frequency in human running. Pflugers Archive, 434, 678-684.
10. Cavanagh, P. R., and Kram, R. (1989). Stride length in distance running: velocity, body dimensions, and added mass effects. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 21, 467-479.
11. Chen, B., Jones, N. L., and Killian, K. J. (1999). Is there a conflict between minimizing effort and energy expenditure with increasing velocities of muscle contraction in humans? Journal of Physiology, 518, 933-940.
12. Coast, J. R., and Welch, H. G. (1985). Linear increase in optimal pedal rate with increased power output in cycle ergometry. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 53, 339-342.
13. Corlett, E., and Mahadeva, K. (1970). Relationship between freely chosen working pace and energy consumption curves. Ergonomics, 13, 517-524.
14. Coyle, E. F., Feltner, M., and Kautz, S. (1991). Physiological and biomechanical factors associated with elite endurance cycling performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 23, 93-107.
15. Croisant, P. T., and Boileau, R. A. (1984). Effect of pedal rate, brake load and power on metabolic responses to bicycle ergometer work. Ergonomics, 27, 691-700.
16. Dickinson, S. (1929). The efficiency of bicycle pedaling as affected by speed and load. Journal of Physiology, 67, 242-255.
17. Eclache, J. P., Lieupart, F., and Lamarzelle, P. (1992). Influence de la cadence gestuelle sur le rendement énergétique du pédalage à bras. Annale de Kinésithérapie, 19, 3-11.
18. Ericson, M. O., Nisell, R., Arborelius, U. P., and Ekholm, J. (1985). Muscular activity during ergometer cycling. Scandinavian Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine, 17, 53-61.
19. Ericson, M. (1986). On the biomechanics of cycling: a study of joint and muscle load during exercise on the bicycle ergometer. Scandinavian Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine, 16, 1-43.
20. Fransescato, M. P., Girardis, M., and DiPrampero, P. E. (1995). Oxygen cost of internal work during cycling. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 72, 51-57.
21. Gaesser, G. A., and Brooks, G. (1975). Muscular efficiency during steady-rate exercise: effects of speed and work rate. Journal of Applied Physiology, 38, 1132-1139.
22. Garry, R. C., and Wishart, G. M. (1931). On the existence of a most efficient speed in bicycle pedaling, and the problem of determining human muscular efficiency. Journal of Physiology, 72, 425-437.
23. Goosey, V. L., Campbell, I. G., and Fowler, N. E. (2001) Effect of push frequency on the economy of wheelchair racers. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 32, 174-181.
24. Goto, S., Toyoshima, S., and Hoshikawa, T. (1976). Study of the integrated EMG of leg muscles during pedaling of various loads, frequency and equivalent power. Biomechanics V-1A, University Park Press Baltimore, MD, 246-252.
25. Gregor, R.J., Broker, J. P., and Ryan, M.M. (1991). The biomechanics of cycling. Exercise and Science Review, 9, 127-168.
26. Gueli, D., and Shephard, R. J. (1976). Pedal frequency in bicycle ergometry. Canadian Journal of Applied Sports Science, 1, 137-141.
27. Hagan, R. D., Weis, S. E., and Raven, P. B. (1992). Effect of pedal rate on cardiorespiratory responses during continuous exercise. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 24, 1088-1095.
28. Hagberg, J. M., Mullin, J. P., Giese, M. D., and Spitzagel, E. (1981). Effect of pedaling rate on sub maximal exercise responses of competitive cyclists. Journal of Applied Physiology: Respiratory, Environmental, and Exercise Physiology, 51, 447-451.
29. Hamill, J., Derrick, T. R., and Holt, K. G. (1995). Shock attenuation and stride frequency during running. Human Movement Science, 14, 45-60.
30. Hermansen, L., and Saltin, B. (1969). Oxygen uptake during treadmill and bicycle exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology, 26, 31-37.
31. Hill, A. V. (1922). The maximum work and mechanical efficiency of human muscles and their most economical speed. Journal of Physiology, 56, 19-41.
32. Hintzy, F., Belli, A., Grappe, F., and Rouillon, J. D. (1999). Optimal pedaling velocity characteristics during maximal and submaximal cycling in humans. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 79, 426-432.
33. Hintzy, F., Groslambert, A., Dugue, B., Rouillon, J. D., and Belli, A. (2001). Does endurance or sprint training influence the perception of the optimal pedalling rate during submaximal exercise? International Journal of Sports Medicine, 22, 513-516.
34. Holt, K. G., Hamill, J., and Andres, R. O. (1990) The force-driven harmonic oscillator as a model for human locomotion. Human Movement Science, 9, 55-68.
35. Holt, K. G., Hamill, J., and Andres, R. O. (1991) Predicting the minimal energy cost of human walking. Medicine and Science in Sport and Exercise, 23, 491-498.
36. Hull, M. L., and Gonzalez, H. (1988). Bivariate optimization of pedaling rate and crank arm length in cycling. Journal of Biomechanics, 21, 839-849.
37. Kaneko, M., Matsumoto, M., Ito, A., and Fuchimoto, T. (1987). Optimum step frequency in constant speed running. In Jonsson B (ed) Biomechanics X-B. Champaign, Human Kinetics Publishers, 803-807.
38. Keyser, R. E., Andres, F. F., Wojta, D. M., and Gullett, S. L. (1988). Variations in cardiovascular responses accompanying differences in arm cranking rate. Archive of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 69, 941-945.
39. Larson, L. A. (1966). An international research program for the standardization of physical fitness tests. Journal of Sport Medicine, 6, 259-263.
40. Lepers, R., Hausswirth, C., Maffiuletti, N., Brisswalter, J., and Van Hoecke, J. (2000). Evidence of neuromuscular fatigue after prolonged cycling exercise. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 32, 1880-1886.
41. Lewis, S. F., Snell, P. G., and Taylor, W. F. (1985). Role of muscle mass andmode of contraction in circulatory responses to exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology, 58, 146-151.
42. Lucia, A., Hoyos, J., and Chicharro, J. L. (2001). Preferred pedaling cadence in professional cycling. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 33, 1361-1366.
43. MacIntosh, B. R., Neptune, R. R., and Horton, J. F. (2000). Cadence, power, and muscle activation in cycle ergometry. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 32, 1281-1287.
44. MacKay, G. A., and Banister, E. W. (1976). A comparison of maximum oxygen uptake determination by bicycle ergometry at various pedaling frequencies and by treadmill running at various speeds. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology, 35, 191-200.
45. Marais, G., Weissland, T., Robin, H., Vanvelcenaher, J. J., Lavoie, J. M., and Pelayo, P. (1999). Physiological effects of variations in spontaneously chosen crank rate during sub-maximal and supra-maximal upper body exercises. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 20, 239-245.
46. Marais G. (2000). Comparaison des réponses cardio-respiratoires et électromyographiques entre des exercices réalisés avec les membres supérieurs ou inférieurs à fréquences spontanées. Effets des variations de la fréquence spontanée de manivellage. Doctoral Dissertation, Faculté des Sciences du Sport et de l'Education Physique, Université de Lille II, France.
47. Marais, G., Dupont, L., Garcin, M., Vanvelcenaher, J. J., and Pelayo, P. (2001). RPE responses during arm and leg exercises: effect of variations in spontaneously chosen crank rate. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 92, 253-262.
48. Marais, G., Dupont, L., Maillet, M., Weissland, T., Vanvelcenaher J.J., and Pelayo, P. (2002). Spontaneously Chosen Crank Rate Variations in Submaximal Arm Exercise with Inexperienced Subjects. Effects on Cardiorespiratory and Efficiency Parameters. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 02, 120-124.
49. Marsh, A. P., and Martin, P. E. (1993). The association between cycling experience and preferred and most economical cadences. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 25, 1269-1274.
50. Marsh, A. P., and Martin, P. E. (1995). The relationship between cadence and lower extremity EMG in cyclists and non cyclists. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27, 217-225.
51. Marsh, A. P., and Martin, P. E. (1998). Perceived exertion and the preferred cycling cadence. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 30, 942-948.
52. Marsh, A. P., Martin, P. E., and Foley, K. O. (2000). Effect of cadence, cycling experience, and aerobic power on delta efficiency during cycling. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 32, 1630-1634.
53. Marsh, A. P., Martin, P. E., and Sanderson, D. J. (2000). Is a joint moment-based cost function associated with preferred cycling cadence? Journal of Biomechanics, 33, 173-180.
54. Millet, G. Y., Hoffman, M. D., Candau, R., Buckwalter, J. B., and Clifford, P. S. (1998). Cycle variations in roller ski skating: effects on oxygen uptake and poling forces. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 19, 521-525.
55. Minetti, E. A., Capelli, C., Zamparo, P., di Prampero, P. E., and Saibene, F. (1995). Effects of stride frequency on mechanical power and energy expenditure of walking. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27, 1194-1202.
56. Morgan, D., Martin, P., Craib, M., Caruso, C., Clifton, R., and Hopewell, R. (1994). Effect of step length optimization on the aerobic demand of running. Journal of Applied Physiology, 77, 245-251.
57. Neptune, R. R., and Herzog, W. (1999). The association between negative muscle work and pedaling rate. Journal of Biomechanics, 32, 1021-1026.
58. Neptune, R. R., and Hull, M. L. (1999). A theoretical analysis of preferred pedaling rate selection in endurance cycling. Journal of Biomechanics, 32, 409-415.
59. Nickleberry, B. L., and Brooks, G. A. (1996). No effect of cycling experience on leg cycle ergometer efficiency. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 28, 1396-1401.
60. Pandolf, K. B., and Noble, B. J. (1973). The effect of pedaling speed and resistance changes on perceived exertion for equivalent power outputs on the bicycle ergometer. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 5, 132-136.
61. Patterson, R. P., and Pearson, J. L. (1983). The influence of flywheel weight and pedaling frequency on the biomechanics and physiological responses to bicycle exercise. Ergonomics, 26, 659-668.
62. Patterson, R. P., and Moreno, M. I. (1990). Bicycle pedaling forces as a function of pedaling rate and power output. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 22, 512-516.
63. Pelayo, P., Sidney, M., Kherif, T., Chollet, D., and Tourny, C. (1996). Stroking characteristics in free style and relationships with anthropometric characteristics. Journal of Applied Biomechanics, 12, 197-206.
64. Pelayo, P., Sidney, M., and Weissland, T. (1997). Effects of variations in spontaneously chosen rate during crank upper-body and swimming exercise. Journal of Human Movement Studies, 32, 1-10.
65. Pelayo, P., Dekerle, J., Delaporte, B., Gosse, N., and Sidney, M. (2000) Critical speed and critical stroke rate could be useful physiological and technical criteria for coaches to monitor endurance performance in competitive swimmers. In R. H. Sanders and Y. Hong (eds), Proceedings of XVIII International Symposium on Biomechanics in Sports: Applied Program: Application of Biomechanical Study in Swimming (pp. 83-87). Hong Kong: The Chinese University of Hong Kong.
66. Powers, S. K., Beadle, R. E., and Mangum, M. (1984). Exercise efficiency during arm ergometry: effects of speed and work rate. Journal of Applied Physiology: Respiratory, Environmental, and Exercise Physiology, 56, 495-499.
67. Redfield, R., and Hull, M. L. (1986). On the relation between joint moments and pedaling rates at constant power in bicycling. Journal of Biomechanics, 19, 317-329.
68. Saltin, B., and Astrand, P. O. (1967). Maximal oxygen uptake in athletes. Journal of Applied Physiology, 23, 353-358.
69. Salvendy, G., and Pilitsis, J. (1971). Psychophysiological aspects of paced and unpaced performance as influenced by age. Ergonomics, 6, 703-711.
70. Sawka, M. N., Foley, M. E., Pimental, N. A., Toner, M. M., and Pandolf, K. B. (1983). Determination of maximal aerobic power during upper-body exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology: Respiratory, Environmental, and Exercise Physiology, 54, 113-117.
71. Sawka, M. N. (1986). Physiology of upper body exercise. In K. B. Pandolf (ed.) Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews (pp. 175-211). New York: McMillan Publishing Company.
72. Seabury, J. J., Adams, W. C., and Ramey, M. R. (1977). Influence of pedaling rate and power output on energy expenditure during bicycle ergometry. Ergonomics, 20, 491-498.
73. Sidossis, L. S., and Coyle, E. F. (1992). Load and velocity of contraction influence gross and delta mechanical efficiency. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 13, 407-411.
74. Suzuki, Y. (1979). Mechanical efficiency of fast-and slow-twitch muscles fibres in man during cycling. Journal of Applied Physiology: Respiratory, Environmental, and Exercise Physiology, 47, 263-267.
75. Swain, D. P., and Wright, R. L. (1997). Prediction of VO2peak from submaximal cycle ergometry using 50 versus 80 rpm. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 29, 268-272.
76. Takaishi, T., Yasuda, Y., and Moritani, T. (1994). Neuromuscular fatigue during prolonged pedaling exercise at different pedaling rates. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 69, 154-158.
77. Takaishi, T., Yasuda, Y., Takashi, O., and Moritani, T. (1996). Optimal pedaling rates estimated from neuromuscular fatigue for cyclists. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 28, 1492-1497.
78. Takaishi, T., Takashi, Y., Takashi, O., Tomonori, I., and Moritani, T. (1998). Neuromuscular, metabolic, and kinetic adaptations for skilled pedaling performance in cyclists. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 30, 442-449.
79. Vallier, J. M., Hausswirth, C., Brisswalter, J., and Bignet, F. (1996). Determination de la cadence de pédalage optimale chez des triathlétes. Archive of Physiology and Biochemistry, 104, 625.
80. Van der Woude, L. H., Veeger, H. E., Rozendal, R. H., and Sargeant, A. J. (1989). Optimum cycle frequencies in hand-rim wheelchair propulsion. Wheelchair propulsion technique. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 58, 625-632.
81. Vercruyssen, F., Hausswirth, C., Smith, D., and Brisswalter, J. (2001). Effect of exercise duration on optimal pedaling rate choice in triathletes. Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology, 26, 44-54.
82. Wakayoshi, K., D'Acquisto, L. J., Cappaert, J. M., and Troup, J. P. (1995). Relationship between oxygen uptake, stroke rate and swimming velocity in competitive swimming. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 16, 19-23.
83. Weissland, T., Pelayo, P., Vanvelcenaher, J., Marais, G., Lavoie, J. M, and Robin, H. (1997). Physiological effects of variations of spontaneouslychosen crank rate in incremental upper body exercise. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 76, 428-433.
84. Weissland, T., Marais, G., Robin, H., Vanvelcenaher, J., and Pelayo, P. (1999). Relationship in humans between spontaneously chosen crank rate and power output during upper body exercise at different levels of intensity. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 79, 230-236.
85. Wells, R., Morrissey, M., and Hughson, R. (1986). Internal work and physiological responses during concentric and eccentric cycle ergometry. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 55, 295-301.
86. Wendt, I. R., and Gibbs, C. L. (1974). Energy production of mammalian fastand slow-twitch muscles during development. American Journal of Physiology, 226, 642-647.
87. Zoladz, J. A., Rademaker, A. C., and Sargeant, A. J. (2000). Human muscle power generating capability during cycling at different pedaling rates. Experimental Physiology, 85, 117-124.