Civilizing the state: Borders, weak states and international health in modern Europe

Medicine at the Border: Disease, Globalization and Security, 1850 to the Present

Volumn , Issue , 2006, Pages 21-40

  Zylberman, Patrick ^a  

^a CNRS   (France)

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EID: 85008486138     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1057/9780230288904     Document Type: Chapter

References (125)

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2. On the royal ordinance of 3 March 1822, see H. Rey, 'Les quarantaines', Archives de médecine navale, 22 (1874): 126-7
3. A.M. Stern, 'Buildings, boundaries, and blood: Medicalization and nation-building on the U.S.-Mexico border, 1910-1930', Hispanic American Historical Review 79 (1999): 54
4. P. Weindling, 'A virulent strain: German bacteriology as scientific racism, 1890-1920' in W. Ernst & B. Harris (eds), Race, science and medicine, 1700-1960 (London: Routledge, 1999), pp. 218-34.
5. A. Stampar to L. Rajchman, 10/3/1924, League of Nations C.H./S.C./Malaria/2, League of Nations Archive, Geneva.
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8. E. Benveniste, 'Civilisation. Contribution à l'histoire du mot', Problèmes de linguistique générale (Paris: Gallimard, 1966), pp. 339, 343, 345.
9. F. Guizot, Histoire de la civilisation en Europe (Paris: Hachette, 1985), p. 64.
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11. F. Braudel, La Méditerranée et le monde méditerranéen (Paris: Colin, 1966), vol. 2, pp. 101-9.
12. Norbert Elias's 'civilization process' confuses administrative powers with political authority and obstinately tries to assess changes in power (which is taken to be a pure social power) without taking into account politics. For, whether boundaries are health borders or not, we should bear in mind that 'there is no border save political borders'. P. Geouffre de Lapradelle, La frontière (Paris: éditions Internationales, 1928), p. 11.
13. Jellinek, L'état moderne, p. 373.
14. Jellinek, L'état moderne et son droit: t. II - Théorie juridique de l'état (Paris: Giard & Brière, 1913)' 44-5.
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17. A. Baarkus, 'The Sanitary Conferences', Ciba Symposia (1943), p. 1574; this was approved by twelve of the states attending the Conference, among whom Austria-Hungary, France, Italy, the Low Countries, Russia, and disapproved by five, including the United States, Great Britain and Turkey. Protocoles, Rome (1885), annex V to the Protocole no. 1, 63. It was not before 1907 (1911 in practice) that such a system would come into operation thanks to the creation of the Office international d'hygiène publique.
18. C. Lefort, 'les Droits de l'homme et l'état-providence', in Essais sur le politique XIXe-XXe siècles (Paris: le Seuil, 1986), p. 35.
19. P.E. Carroll, 'Medical Police and the History of Public Health', Medical History, (2002): 461-94.
20. Jellinek, L'état moderne, p. 374.
21. Geouffre de Lapradelle, La frontière, pp. 15, 231, 262.
22. Jellinek, L'état moderne, p. 411.
23. F. Fukuyama, State-building: Governance and world order in the twenty-first century (London: Profile Books, 2004), p. ix. Thérèse Delpech, too, has emphasized the 'phenomenon of the state's failure' and the 'challenge that these chaotic formations represent for the whole of the organized world' in Politique du chaos: L'autre face de la mondialisation (Paris: Seuil, 2002), pp. 9-12.
24. Thérèse Delpech, too, has emphasized the 'phenomenon of the state's failure' and the 'challenge that these chaotic formations represent for the whole of the organized world' in Politique du chaos: L'autre face de la mondialisation (Paris: Seuil, 2002), pp. 9-12
25. N.B. King, 'Security, disease, commerce: Ideologies of post-colonial global health', Social Studies of Science, 32 (2002): 770, 781.
26. J.L. Gaddis, Surprise, security, and the American experience (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004), pp. 16-22.
27. D.P. Fidler, SARS, Governance, and the Globalization of Disease (London: Palgrave, 2004), pp. 23-35.
28. E. Sève, Sanitary Conference held in Washington (1881), in Les dix premières années de l'Organisation mondiale de la Santé (Genève: O.M.S., 1958), p. 14.
29. A. Proust, Essai sur l'hygiène internationale. Ses applications contre la peste, la fièvre jaune et le choléra asiatique (Paris: Masson, 1873), p. 45.
30. A. Proust, la Défense de l'Europe contre le choléra (Paris: Masson, 1892), p. 78.
31. J. Girette, La civilisation et le choléra (Paris: Hachette, 1867), pp. 144-6; Bartoletti, Rapport, apud A. d'Avril, l'Arabie contemporaine (Paris: Maillet, 1868), pp. 301-3.
32. Bartoletti, Rapport, apud A. d'Avril, l'Arabie contemporaine (Paris: Maillet, 1868), pp. 301-3
33. Dr Catelan, 'Choléra au Hedjaz en 1890', Travaux du Comité consultatif d'hygiène publique de France, 21 (1891): 839.
34. Dr P. Alix, 'Contribution à la géographie médicale: Djeddah, pèlerinages, choléra', Archives de Médecine navale, 62 (1894): 327.
35. P. de Ségur Dupeyron, 'la Caravane de la Mecque', Revue des Deux Mondes, (1855): 351, 358
36. Dr F. Duguet, le Pèlerinage de la Mecque au point de vue religieux, social et sanitaire (Paris: Rieder, 1932), pp. 135, 158.
37. This is a strongly engrained commonplace idea, as shown in the posthumous work by A. Siegfried, Itinéraires de contagions. Epidémies et idéologies, with a preface by Pasteur Valléry-Radot (Paris: Colin, 1960).
38. French Ministry of Foreign Affairs [henceforth MAE] CCC Djedda, vice-consul (Dubreuil), 3 March 1869.
39. P. Baldwin, Contagion and the State in Europe 1830-1930 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 226-36.
40. Catelan, 'Choléra au Hedjaz en 1890', p. 835.
41. M. Delarue, Rapport médical de M. Delarue, commisionné par le gouverneur général de l'Algérie à bord du 'Pictavia', pour le pèlerinage de la Mecque en 1891 (Alger: Giralt, 1892), p. 50.
42. Dr Abbate Pasha, la Question de la neutralisation quarantenaire du canal de Suez devant le Congrès de Venise (Le Caire: Imp. Baudieri, 1891), p. 17.
43. M.M.H. Farâhâni, A Shi'ite Pilgrimage to Mecca 1885-1886, translated and edited by H. Farmayan and E.L. Daniel (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990), p. 290.
44. H. Lammens, le Pèlerinage de la Mecque en 1902. Journal d'un pèlerin égyptien, Bull. mens. missions belges de la Compagnie de Jésus. Congo, Bengale, Ceylan, 6, no. 2 (February 1904): 50; letters sent to al-Ahram by an Egyptian pilgrim.
45. Farâhâni, A Shi'ite Pilgrimage, pp. 289-90; Delarue, Rapport médical, p. 99.
46. Delarue, Rapport médical, p. 99
47. Catelan, 'Choléra au Hedjaz en 1890', p. 837
48. Proust, la Défense de l'Europe' pp. 302-7
49. Boissevain, manager of the ship company Nederland, quoted in Dutrieux Bey, le Choléra dans la Basse-Egypte en 1883. Relation d'une exploration médicale dans le delta du Nil pendant l'épidémie cholérique (Paris: Berthier, 1884), p. 251.
50. J. Gerlitt, 'The development of quarantine', Ciba Symposia, 2 (1940): 579. Health regulations of Mecca pilgrimages are analyzed in Duguet, le Pelerinage de la Mecque, p. 122
51. Health regulations of Mecca pilgrimages are analyzed in Duguet, le Pelerinage de la Mecque, p. 122
52. N.M. Goodman, International health organizations and their work (London: Churchill Livingstone, 1971), pp. 66-74.
53. Girette, La civilisation et le choléra, p. 35.
54. H.S. Gear & Z. Deutschman, Transports internationaux et protection de la santé publique: La réglementation sanitaire internationale (Geneva: World Health Organization, 1956), p. 13.
55. Anon., review of A. Chantemesse & F. Borel's Frontières et prophylaxie (hygiène internationale) (Paris: Doin, 1907), Archives de médecine navale, 87 (1907): 217-20.
56. R. Pollitzer, Le choléra (Geneva: World Health Organization, 1960), pp. 1026-7.
57. Gear & Deutschman, Transports internationaux, p. 57.
58. é. Vallin quoted by Anon., 'Congrès international d'hygiène de Vienne', Archives de médecine navale, 49 (1888): 61, 65.
59. Émile Vallin (1833-1924) was chief editor of the Revue d'hygiène, which he had founded in 1879. He held the Chair of Hygiene and Legal Medicine in the army's école d'Application du Val-de-Grâce (1874).
60. Fukuyama, State-building, p. 12. See, too, N. Ferguson, Colossus: The price of America's empire (New York: Penguin Press, 2004), p. 197.
61. See, too, N Ferguson, Colossus: The price of America's empire (New York: Penguin Press, 2004), p. 197
62. C. Snouck Hurgronje, 'Politique musulmane de la Hollande', Revue du monde musulman, 14, (1911): 450-2, 454-8.
63. Quoted by B. Lewis, Europe-Islam, actions et réactions (Paris: Gallimard, 1992), p. 19.
64. E. Renan, 'De la part des peuples sémitiques dans l'histoire de la civilisation' (1862) in E. Renan: Qu'est-ce qu'une nation? (Paris: Pocket, 1992), pp. 188-9, 198
65. C. Daremberg, Journal des débats, 16 August 1866, quoted in Girette, La civilisation et le choléra, p. 76.
66. On the Conseil Supérieur de Santé in Constantinople, see D. Pansac, 'Tanzimat et santé publique: les débuts du Conseil sanitaire de l'Empire ottoman' in D. Panzac, Population et santé dans l'Empire ottoman, xviiie-xxe siècles (Istanbul: Isis, 1996) pp. 77-85
67. C. Essner, 'Cholera der Mekkapilger und internationale Sanititätspolitik in Aegypten, 1866-1938', Welt des Islams, 32 (1992): 41-82.
68. MAE series C/18/4, vol. 22, Barrère to Develle, 14 February 1893.
69. Dr C. Izzedine, 'Procès-verbaux de la Conférence sanitaire internationale de Paris (1912)', MAE, Fol. LF 128-99 (1), f. 80ff., 122, 444
70. also Clemow, the British delegate, MAE, Fol. LF 128-99, f. 80ff., 122., f. 278. MAE, CPC Turquie 147, Veillet-Dufrêche (Administrative Division) to Political Division, 2/08/1909, f. 175-9.
71. N. Yïldïrïm, Tanzimat'tan Cumhuriyet'e Koruyucu Saglik Uygulamalarï, Tanzimat'an Cumhuriyet'e Ansiklopedisi (Istanbul: Ilitisim Yayïnlarï, 1985), p. 1326.
72. MAE, CCC Djedda, consul (Dubreuil), 15 May 1868 and 15 February 1869.
73. MAE CCC Djeddah (Lavalette de Monbrun), 27 August 1856.
74. Proust, Essai sur l'hygiène internationale, p. 2.
75. S.-A. Fauvel, Rapport sur les mesures à prendre en Orient pour prévenir de nouvelles invasions du choléra en Europe, annex to the minutes n 29 (28 May) of the Internationale Sanitary Conference, August 1866 (Constantinople: Imprimerie du Levant Herald, 1866), pp. 9-14.
76. Quoted by A. Siegfried, Vue générale de la Méditerranée (Paris: Gallimard, 1943), p. 171.
77. Quoted by A. Siegfried, Vue générale de la Méditerranée (Paris: Gallimard, 1943), p. 177.
78. Procès-verbaux de la Conférence sanitaire internationale de Paris (1912), MAE, Fol LF 128-99 (1), f. 122.
79. MAE Turquie 147, Administrative Division to Bompard, 23 June 1909.
80. The three man subjects of international health protection according to Professor Santoliquido: Duguet, le Pelerinage de la Mecque, p. 192.
81. M. Weber, économie et société (Paris: Plon, 1971), part III, sections 6-8.
82. Fukuyama, State-building, p. 134.
83. P. Zylberman, 'Mosquitos and the komitadjis: Malaria and borders in Macedonia (1919-1938)' in I. Borowy & W.D. Gruner (eds), Facing Illness in Troubled Times: Health in Europe in the interwar years (Bern: Peter Lang, 2005), pp. 305-43.
84. A. Stampar, 'On health politics, 1919' in A. Stampar, Serving the cause of public health: Selected papers of Andrija Stampar edited by M. Grmek (Zagreb: Andrija Stampar School of Public Health, Medical Faculty, University of Zagreb, 1966), p. 78.
85. B. Konstantinovic, La Yougoslavie pour la santé publique (Belgrade: Institut Balkanique, 1937), p. 44.
86. C.E.A. Winslow, 'Malaria control in Italy, Albania and Macedonia', RAC/RG2/stack 1929/554/3729, pp. 8-9, 15
87. L. Killen, 'The Rockefeller Foundation in the first Yugoslavia', East European Quarterly, 34 (1990): 356.
88. N. Ferguson, The cash nexus: Money and power in the modern world, 1700-2000 (London: Allen Lane & Penguin Press, 2001), p. 374.
89. M. Ignatieff, Empire Lite: Nation-building in Bosnia, Kosovo and Afghanistan (London, 2003), p. 2, quoted by Ferguson, Colossus, p. 165.
90. A.M. Moulin, Le dernier langage de la médecine: histoire de l'immunologie de Pasteur au sida (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1991), pp. 244-57.
91. J. Ancel, Géographie des frontières (Paris: Gallimard, 1938), p. 185, referring to F. Haushofer, Grenzen in ihrer geographischen und politischen Bedeutung (Berlin: Wowinckel, 1927)
92. D. Diner, Beyond the conceivable: Studies on Germany, Nazism and the Holocaust (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000), pp. 26-48.
93. D.F. Musto, 'Quarantine and the problem of AIDS', The Milbank Quarterly, 64 (1986): 109.
94. Konstantinovic, La Yougoslavie pour la santé publique, p. 59.
95. H. Zinsser, Rats, lice and history (London: Penguin Books, 2000 [Routledge, 1935]), pp. 133, 213.
96. S. Adamets, Guerre civile et famine en Russie: Le pouvoir bolchevique et la population face à la catastrophe démographique entre 1917 et 1923 (Paris: éditions de l'Institut d'études Slaves, 2003), pp. 187, 221, 231
97. P. Gatrell, A Whole Empire Walking: Refugees in Russia during World War I (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999).
98. Résolution adoptée par la Conférence de Varsovie le 22 mars 1922, appendix no. II [LN C.152.1922-C.I.E. 24], MAE Europe 1918-1940 Pologne 272, fol. 206. These contemporary estimates have been increased through presentday research.
99. M. Balinska, 'Assistance and not mere relief: The Epidemic Commission of the League of Nations, 1920-23' in P. Weindling (ed.), International health organisations and movements, 1918-1939 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp. 84, 89.
100. Balinska, 'Assistance and not mere relief', pp. 81, 93 et 96.
101. The data gathered by M. Kacprzak, l'Hygiene publique en Pologne (Warsaw, 1933), LN, CH/EPS/164, p. 124, are very different: the number of cases in Poland was at a maximum in 1919 (219,088) and decreased steadily thereafter (42,724 in 1922), whereas the number of deaths reached its climax in 1920 (22,575) then fell below 5,000 in 1922
102. Kacprzak, l'Hygiene publique en Pologne, pp. 116-17.
103. W. Rose, 'Conditions in eastern European Countries', 14 March 1920, Rockefeller Foundation Archive RAC/1.1./700 Europe/16/121.
104. L. Rajchman to W. Rose, 18 February 1922, RAC/1.1./100 International/ 20/165.
105. Rose, 'Conditions in eastern European Countries'; L. Rajchman to L. Bernard, February 1922, LN R820/12B/26208/11346.
106. Balinska, 'Assistance not mere relief', pp. 81-108; P. Weindling, Epidemics and genocide in eastern Europe, 1890-1945 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), pp. 140-8, 163-71.
107. P. Weindling, Epidemics and genocide in eastern Europe, 1890-1945 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), pp. 140-8, 163-71
108. L. Rajchman, 'Records of the European conference held at Warsaw from March twentieth to 28th 1922', LN C.144.M.96.1922, R835/12B/19914/18972; and League of Nations, 'Conférence sanitaire européenne réunie à Varsovie du au 28 mars 1922, Genève, 3/4/1922', MAE, Europe 1918-40/Pologne 272/221.
109. On political geography, see M. Korinman, Quand l'Allemagne pensait le monde. Grandeur et décadence d'une géopolitique (Paris: Fayard, 1990), pp. 132, 139ff.
110. D.T. Murphy, The Heroic Earth: Geopolitical thought in Weimar Germany, 1918-1933 (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1997), pp. 30-2.
111. Geouffre de Lapradelle, La frontière, p. 226.
112. O. Lattimore, Studies in frontier history (Paris: Mouton, 1962), p. 113.
113. M. Albert & L. Brock, 'Debordering the world of states: New spaces in international relations', New Political Science, 35 (1996): 70.
114. But see the qualifications made by V. Shkolnikov, F. Meslé and J. Vallin, 'La crise sanitaire en Russie: I. Tendances récentes de l'espérance de vie et des causes de décès de 1970 à 1993', Population, 4-5 (1995): 907-44
115. 'La crise sanitaire en Russie: II. évolution des causes de décès: Comparaison avec la France et l'Angleterre (1970-1993)', Population, 4-5 (1995): 945-82.
116. J. Ancel, Géopolitique (Paris: Delagrave, 1938), p. 90.
117. C. Rosenberg, 'What is an epidemic? AIDS in historical perspective', Daedalus, (1989): 2-3.
118. Dr Mark Ryan (WHO), interviewed by K. Bradsher & L.K. Altmann: 'SARS is subsiding, but as unpredictably as it surfaced' in the International Herald Tribune (23 July 2003).
119. Proust, la Défense de l'Europe, pp. 285-92; Dr Catelan, 'Rapport sur le choléra au Hidjaz en 1890', Archives de médecine navale, 59 (1893): 51-4.
120. Dr Catelan, 'Rapport sur le choléra au Hidjaz en 1890', Archives de médecine navale, 59 (1893): 51-4.
121. W.R. Roff, 'Sanitation and security: The imperial powers and the nineteenthcentury Hajj' in R.B. Serjeant and R.L. Bidwell (eds), Arabian Studies, VI (London: Scorpion Communication, 1982), pp. 143-60.
122. Gaddis, Surprise, security, and the American experience, p. 86
123. P. Baldwin, Disease and Democracy: The Industrialized World faces AIDS (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), pp. 1-6, 227-43, explores in depth this 'fundamental continuity with past tactics' in the management of epidemics.
124. L. Murard & P. Zylberman, 'The Health Organization of the League of Nations: Functionalism revisited', unpublished paper submitted to the conference Health in the city: A history of public health organized by the Society for the Social History of Medicine and the International Network for the History of Public Health, Liverpool 4-7 September 1997.
125. L. Garrett, 'The politics and profits of AIDS', International Herald Tribune (17-18 July 2004).