Commanding Rape: Sexual Violence, Command Responsibility, and the Prosecution of Superiors by the International Criminal Tribunals for the Former Yugoslavia and Rwanda

Canadian Yearbook of International Law

Volumn 36, Issue , 1999, Pages 93-149

  Laviolette, Nicole ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OTTAWA   (Canada)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 85008449969     PISSN: 00690058     EISSN: 19250169     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0069005800006895     Document Type: Article

References (232)

1. Trial of General Tomoyuki Yamashita (1946) 4 Law Reports of the Trials of War Criminals, Case no. 21 at 35 [hereinafter Yamashita}.
2. Arnold Brackman, The Other Nuremberg: The Untold Story of the Tokyo War Crimes Tri 433 (London: Collins, 1989).
3. Philip Piccigallo, The Japanese on Trial: Allied War Crimes Operations in the East 50 (Austin: Univ. of Texas Press, 1979).
4. Of all Allied cities, only Warsaw suffered greater damage during the war than Manila"
5. Ronald Spector, Eagle against the Sun: The American War with Japan 524 (New York: Viking, 1984).
6. Lawrence Taylor, A Trial of Generals: Homma, Yamashita, MacArthur 126 (South Bend, Indiana: Icarus Press, 1981).
7. Yamashita, supra note i at 3.
8. Piccigallo, supranote 3 at 56.
9. Kaoru Okuizumi, "Intentional Prosecution of Sexual Assaults" (1997) 7 Transnational Law and Contemporary Problems 45 at 62-68.
10. International Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, The Prosecutors.
11. Delalic, Mucic, Landzo and Delic: Judgment (Nov. 16, 1998) Case No. IT-g6-2i-T [hereinafter Celebici;judgment].
12. The trial began in March 1997. On Oct. 15, 1998, the presiding judge closed the trial hearings and a judgment was released on Nov. 16, 1998.
13. Notices of appeal against the judgment were given by accused Delic and Mucic and by the Prosecutor (with regard to Delalic's acquittal and the length of Mucic's sentence).
14. International Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, The Prosecutors.
15. Zlatko Aleksovski: Judgment (May 7, 1999) Case No. 11-95-14/1. On May 17 and May 19, 1999 respectively, the defence and the prosecution filed Notices of Appeal against both the judgment and sentence.
16. Telford Taylor, The Anatomy of the Nuremberg Trials 6 (London: Bloomsbury, 1993)
17. Adam Roberts and Richard Guelff, Documents on the Laws of War, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989) [hereinafter Geneva Conventions].
18. Geneva Convention IV on Civilians, supra note 15, 271.
19. Kelly Dawn Askin, War Crimes against Women 28 (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1997).
20. L. C. Green, "Command Responsibility in International Humanitarian Law" (1995) 5 Transnational Law and Contemporary Problems 319-322.
21. Hague Convention on Civilians, Oct. 18, 1907, Annex, Art. 1(1), reprinted in Roberts and Guelff, supra note 15 at 48.
22. M. Cherif Bassiouni and Peter Manikas, The Law of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia 35 (Irvington-on-Hudson, New York: Transnational Publishers, 1996).
23. William Parks, "Command Responsibility for War Crimes" 62 Military L. Rev. i.
24. Notes on the Case" in Yamashita, supra note i at 75-96.
25. Bruce Landrum, "The Yamashita War Crimes Trial: Command Responsibility Then and Now" (1995) 149 Military L. Rev. 293-295.
26. Yamashita, supra note i at 18, 26-27.
27. Yamashita, supra note i at 34.
28. see Richard Lael, The Yamashita Precedent: War Crimes and Command Responsibility (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1982);
29. Taylor, supra note 11 at 239;
30. Taylor, supra note 4;
31. A. Reel, The Case of General Yamashita (New York: Octago Books, 1971;
32. originally printed in 1949).
33. Taylor, supra note 11 at 239;
34. Ann Marie Prevost, "Race and War Crimes: The 1945 War Crimes Trial of General Tomoyuki Yamashita" (1992) 14 Hum. Rts Q. 303.
35. W. D. Burnett, "Command Responsibility and a Case Study of the Criminal Responsibility of Israeli Military Commanders for the Pogrom at Shatila and Sabra" (1985) 107 Military L. Rev. 71-98;
36. Christopher Crowe, "Command Responsibility in the former Yugoslavia: The Chances for Successful Prosecution" (1995) 29 U. Richmond L.R. 191 at 207-8;
37. Edward O'Brien, "The Nuremberg Principles, Command Responsibility, and the Defense of Captain Rockwood" (1995) 149 Military L. Rev. 275-286.
38. Yamashita, supra note i at 35.
39. Brackman, supra note 2 at 419.
40. International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, The Prosecutor v. Jean-Paul Akayesu: Judgment, Sept. 2, 1998, Case No. ICTR-gG-^T at s. 6.5 [hereinafter Akayesu].
41. Hostage case (1948) 11 Trials of War Criminals before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals 759.
42. Landrum, supranote 23 at 298.
43. High Command case, (1948) 10-11 Trials of War Criminals before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals i [hereinafter High Command].
44. Geneva Protocol I Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of International Conflicts (1977): reprinted in Roberts and Guelff, supra note 15 at 387 [hereinafter Protocol I].
45. M. Bothe, K. J. Partsch and W. Solf, New Rules for Victims of Armed Conflicts: Commentary on the Two 19 77 Protocols Additional to the Geneva Conventions of1949 (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1982) 524.
46. Protocol I, supra note 38 at 439.
47. Celebia'judgment, supra note 10 at 134.
48. Akayesu, supra note 29 at s. 62.
49. Celebici judgment, supra note 10 at 122.
50. pre-Trial Brief, supra note 43 at 6.
51. Akayesu, supra note 29 at s. 6.2.
52. Pre-Trial Brief, supra note 43 at 6.
53. Kenneth Howard, "Command Responsibility for War Crimes" (1972) 21J. Public L. at 14.
54. Akayesu, supra note 29 at s. 62.
55. Roy Gutman, "Mass Rape-Muslims Recall Serb Attacks," Newsday (Aug. 23, 1992).
56. Gutman was the first journalist to report on the use of sexual violence in the "ethnic cleansing" campaigns carried out by Serbian troops against Muslim and Croatian populations.
57. also John Burns, "Forced to Have Serbian Babies," Ottawa Citizen (Oct. 5, 1992);
58. George Rodrigue, "Women: The Targets of Terror," Montreal Gazette (Nov. 23, 1992);
59. Pat Karlak, "Speaking for Women Too Ashamed to Tell Story," Globe and Mail (Dec. 29, 1992);
60. Dianne Klein, "Bosnian Rape Victims: An Unending Scream," Montreal Gazette (Dec. 30, 1992).
61. Alexandra Stiglmayer, "The Rapes in Bosnia-Herzegovina" in Alexandra Stiglmayer, ed., Mass Rape: The War against Women in Bosnia-Herzegovina (Lincoln, Nebraska: Univ. of Nebraska Press, 1994). While incidents of rape have been reported against all sides to the conflict, the majority of instances of sexual abuse involved Muslim women victims of Serbian forces: ibid., 85.
62. Amelia French, "Women Break Their Silence over the Rape of Rwanda," Independent (Nov. 10, 1997).
63. Human Rights Watch, m/ranote 85.
64. Amy Ray, "The Shame of It: Gender-Based Terrorism in the Former Yugoslavia and the Failure of International Human Rights Law to Comprehend the Injuries" (1997) 46 Amer. Univ. L. Rev. 793-796, n. 20.
65. Rhonda Copelon, "Surfacing Gender: Re-Engraving Crimes against Women in Humanitarian Law" (1994) 5 Hastings Women's L. J. 243-245.
66. Francoise Krill, "The Protection of Women in International Law" (Nov.-Dec. 1985) 25:223 Int'l Rev. of the Red Cross 337.
67. Askin, supra note 17 at 13.
68. Susan Brownmiller, Against Our Will: Men, Women, and Rape (London: Seeker and Warburg, 1975).
69. Judith Gardam, "The Law of Armed Conflict: A Gendered Regime?" in Dorinda G. Dallmeyer, ed., Reconceiving Reality: Women and International Law 177 (Washington: Amer. Soc. of Int'l L., 1993) [hereinafter "Gendered Regime"].
70. Jasminka Kalajdzic, "Rape, Representation, and Rights: Permeating International Law with the Voices of Women" (1996) 21 Queen's L.J. 457.
71. Brownmiller, supra note 57 at 35.
72. Kalajdzic, supra note 60 at 463.
73. Copelon, supra note 54 at 259.
74. George Hicks, The Comfort Women (New York: W. W. Norton, 1994);
75. International Commission of Jurists, Report of a Mission-Comfort Women: An Unfinished Ordeal (Geneva, 1994);
76. David Boling, "Mass Rape, Enforced Prostitution, and the Japanese Imperial Army: Japan Eschews International Legal Responsibility?" (1995) 32 Columbia J. of Transnational L. 533.
77. Kalajdzic, supra note 60 at 466.
78. John Nadler, "Rape Victims' Shame Hinders Prosecutions," Ottawa Citizen (Apr. 30, 1999) at Ay;
79. Bruce Johnston, "30 Women Pulled from Truck, Raped, Girls Say," National Post (Apr. 14, 1999);
80. Carlotta Gall, "Refugees Crossing Kosovo Border Tell of Rapes and Killings," New York Times (Apr. 20, 1999).
81. Kristin Huckshorn, "Rape: Victims Pay a Double Price," Ottawa Citizen (Dec. 28, 1992).
82. Human Rights Watch, The Human Rights Watch Global Report on Women's Human Rights 25-31 (New York, 1995).
83. Women who fled the conflict in Somalia to escape violence and sexual assaults often faced similar abuse in refugee camps: Human Rights Watch, Seeking Refuge, Finding Terror: The Widespread Rape of Somali Women Refugees in North Eastern Kenya (New York: Oct. 1993)-67 Brownmiller, supranote 57 at40-48.
84. Kalajdzic, supra note 60 at 467.
85. James Brooke, "Rapists in Uniform: Peru Looks the Other Way," New York Times (Apr. 29, 1993).
86. Human Rights Watch, Global Report, supranote 66 at 74-100;
87. Human Rights Watch, Untold Terror: Violence Against Women in Peru's Armed Conflict (New York: 1992).
88. Copelon, supra note 54 at 259.
89. Haitian Activists Rape Targets," Globe and Mail (June 10, 1994);
90. Human Rights Watch, Rape in Haiti: A Weapon of Terror (New York: 1994).
91. Human Rights Watch and Physicians for Human Rights, Rape in Kashmir: A Crime of War (New York: 1993).
92. Askin reports that "unplanned, individually motivated, opportunistic rape has revealed itself in the Balkan conflict" : supmnote 17 at 288-90.
93. Bassiouni and Manikas, supra note 20 at 55.
94. Brownmiller, supra note 57 at 79.
95. Yugoslavia: Stiglmayer, supra note 51 at 83.
96. Lt. Gen. W. R. Peers, who conducted a military inquiry into the atrocities committed by US soldiers in My Lai in 1968.
97. W. R. Peers, The My Lai Inquiry 232 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1979).
98. Brownmiller, supra note 57 at 90-92.
99. Askin, supra note 17 at 283.
100. Chang, The Rape of Nanking 89 (New York: BasicBooks, 1997).
101. Brownmiller, supra note 57 at 81.
102. Askin, supra note 17 at 16.
103. Rhonda Copelon: "when a man is raped, the humiliation is accomplished through reducing him to the status of a woman. For this reason, sexual violence, whether carried out against women or men, is a crime of gender": Copelon, supra note 54 at 246, n. 12.
104. Theodor Meron, "Rape as a Crime under International Humanitarian Law' (1993) 8? A.J.I.L. 424;
105. Catherine Niarchos, "Women, War, and Rape: Challenges Facing the International Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia" (1995) 17 Hum. Rts Q. 649;
106. Jennifer Green, Rhonda Copelon, Patrick Cotter and Beth Stephens, "Affecting the Rules for the Prosecution of Rape and Other Gender-Based Violence before the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia: A Feminist Proposal and Critique" (1994) 5 Hastings Women's L.J.171.
107. M. Cherif Bassiouni and Marcia McCormick, Sexual Violence: An Invisible Weapon of War in the Former Yugoslavia 15 (Chicago: International Human Rights Law Institute, 1996).
108. Final Report of the Commission of Experts Established Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 780, 49th Sess., Annex, UN Doc 8(1994/674/1994): reprinted in Bassiouni and Manikas, supranote 20 at 168, para. 498.
109. Helsinki Watch, War Crimes in Bosnia-Herzegovina (1993), cited in Siobhan Fisher, "Occupation of the Womb: Forced Impregnation as Genocide" (1996) 46 Duke L. J. 91 at 108.
110. Human Rights Watch/Africa, Human Rights Watch Women's Rights Project, and Federation Internationale des Ligues des Droits de l'Homme, Shattered Lives: Sexual Violence during the Rwandan Genocide and Its Aftermath (New York: 1996).
111. International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Prosecutor v. Zejnil Delalic, Zdravko Mucic, Esad Landzo and Hazim Delic: Indictment (Mar. 19, 1996), Case No. IT-gG-si-T [hereinafter Celebici indictment].
112. International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Prosecutor v. Dusko Sikirica, Damir Dosen, Dragan Fustar, Dragan Kulundzija: Indictment (June 21, 1995), Case No. IT-95-8.
113. International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Prosecutorv. Dragan Gagovic, Gojkojankovic, Dragoljub Kunarac: Indictment (June 18, 1996), Case No. IT-96-23-I [hereinafter Foca indictment].
114. Human Rights Watch, Bosnia and Hercegovina-A Closed, Dark Place: Past and Present Human Rights Abuses in Foca (New York: 1998).
115. Kunarac turned himself in to NATO forces in Bosnia and he is currently in custody in The Hague: Aida Cerkez, "Bosnian Serb War Crimes Suspect Surrenders to NATO troops," Associated Press (Mar. 4, 1998).
116. Sabine Gillot, "Affaire Kunarac: le TPI va de surprise en surprise," Agence France Presse (Mar. 10, 1998).
117. Trial Chamber, International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, News Release CC/PIO/303-E, "Kunarac Case: Trial Chamber Enters A Not-Guilty Plea for the Accused" (Mar. 13, 1998). On July 13, 1998.
118. Kelly D. Askin, "Sexual Violence in Decisions and Indictments of the Yugoslav and Rwandan Tribunals: Current Status" (1999) 93 A.J.I.L. 97 at 120.
119. Foca indictment, supra note 91.
120. International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Prosecutor v. Anto Furundzija: Indictment (Nov. 2, 1995), Case No. 11-95-i7/i-PT. The Trial Chamber handed down its judgment (Dec. 10, 1998) [hereinafter Furundzija judgment] .
121. International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Prosecutor v. Radovan Karadzic and Ratko Mladic: Indictment (July 25, 1995), Case No. IT-95-5-97 The Tribunal's findings were made in a review of the indictments pursuant to Rule 61 of the Tribunal's Rules and Procedure: International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Prosecutorv.
122. Radovan Karadzic and Ratko Mladic: Review of Indictment Pursuant to Rule 61 (July 11, 1996), Cases No. IT-95~5-R6i andIT-95-i8-R6.
123. Timothy Wu and Yong-Sung Rang, "Criminal Liability for the Actions of Subordinates: The Doctrine of Command Responsibility and its Analogues in United States Law" (1997) 38 Harv. Int'l. L. J. 272-273.
124. W. van der Wolf, Global War Crimes Tribunal Collection: Volume i, The Rwanda Tribunal 114-68 (The Netherlands: Wolf Global Legal Publishers, 1997).
125. Fondation Hirondelle, "L'ancien maire de Bicumbi plaide non coupable sur la base d'un acte d'accusation modifie" (24 juin 1999).
126. Fondation Hirondelle, "Alfred Musema plaide non coupable de viol" (6 mai 1999).
127. International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, Prosecutor v. Nyiramasuhuko and Ntahobali: Indictment (May 26, 1997), Case No. ICTR-97-21-I. However, these defendants are charged with having personally committed acts of sexual violence: Askin, supra note 93-122.
128. International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, The Prosecutor against Jean-Paul Akayesu: Indictment (Feb. 16, 1996), Case No. ICTR-96-4-T.
129. Les crimes de viols et violences sexuelles traduits devant la cour pour la premiere fois," Ubutabera: Journal Independant d'informations sur le Tribunal penal international pour le Rwanda (Oct. 22, 1997) (available from the Intermedia website: http://www.inter-media.org) [hereinafter " Crimes de viols"].
130. quot;Viols collectifs dans le bureau communal de Taba," Ubutabera: Journal Independant d'informations sur le Tribunal penal international pour le Rwanda (Oct. 22, 1997) (available from the Intermedia website: http://www.inter-media.org).
131. Crimes de viols," supra note 102.
132. Akayesu, supranote 29.
133. Askin, supranote 17 at 28-29.
134. Lael, supranote 26 at 83-84.
135. Parks, supra note 21 at 70-71.
136. Ibid, 71.
137. Jordan Paust, "My Lai and Vietnam: Norms, Myths and Leaders' Responsibility" (1972) 57 Military L. Rev. 99-182.
138. also Chang, supra note 77 at 49-50, 89-99.
139. Brownmiller, supra note 57 at 58.
140. Brackman, supra note 2 at 190.
141. General Muto was also Chief of Staff to General Yamashita during the "Rape of Manila": Brackman, supra note 2 at 199.
142. Parks, supmnote 21 at69.
143. Chang, supranote 77 at 50.
144. Akayesu, supra note 29 at s. 62.
145. Piccigallo, supra note 3 at 164;
146. Trial of Takashi Sakai (1946) 14 Law Reports of the Trials of War Criminals, Case No. 83.
147. Peers, supranote 75 at 175.
148. Michael Bilton and Kevin Sim, Four Hours in My Lai: A War Crime and Its Aftermath 129 (NewYork: Viking, 1992).
149. Peers, supra note 75 at 227.
150. Beth Ann Isenberg, "Genocide, Rape, and Crimes against Humanity: An Affirmation of Individual Accountability in the Former Yugoslavia in the Karadzic Actions" (1997) 60 Albany L. Rev. 1051 at 1059-60.
151. Kadic, supra note 128 at 242.
152. U.S. District Court, S. Dist. of New York, Order regarding class status in the matter of JaneDoev. Karadzic (Dec. 2, 1997). Available on the internet at: http://diana. Iaw.yale.edu/diana/db/orderi2297.htnil. 135 Yugoslav Statute, supra note 42 at 9, para. 34.
153. Meron, supranote So at426;
154. Askin, supranote 17 at 314-22;
155. Niarchos, supra note 80 at 675-76.
156. Fisher, supra note 84;
157. Catharine A. MacKinnon, "Theory is not a Luxury"
158. Dallmeyer, supra note 59.
159. Akayesu, supranote 29.
160. Copelon, supra note 54 at 257-64.
161. Askin, supranote 17 at 308-59.
162. Bassiouni and Manikas, supranote 20 at 556-90.
163. Akayesu, supranote 29.
164. Furundzijajudgment, supranote 95.
165. Celebidjudgment, supra note 10.
166. Foca indictment, supra note 91.
167. Burnett, supranote 26 at 1280.
168. International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Prosecutor's Response to Defendant's Motion for Judgment of Acquittal (Celebici) (Mar. 6, 1998) Case No. YY-g6-2 i-T at 44 [hereinafter Motion for Acquittal].
169. Akayesu, supra note 29 at s. 7.7.
170. Parks, supra note 21 at 70-71.
171. Rome Statute, supranote 40.
172. Pre-Trial Brief, supra note 43 at 3.
173. Human Rights Watch, supra note 85 at i. 154 Akayesu, supra note 29 ats. 12.
174. Commission on Human Rights, Contemporary Forms of Slavery: Systematic Rape, Sexual Slavery and Slavery-Like Practices during Armed Conflict, Final Report of the Special Rapporteur, UN ESCOR, 1988, UN Doc. E/CN-4/Sub.2/i998/i3 (June 22, 1998).
175. Andrew Byrnes, "Women, Feminism and International Human Rights Law" (1992) 12 Aust. YB. Int'l L. 205-209.
176. Hilary Charlesworth, Christine Chinkin, and Shelly Wright, "Feminist Approaches to International Law" (1991) 85 A J.I.L. 613.
177. Byrnes, supranote 159 at 232-239.
178. Charlesworth, Chinkin, and Wright, supra note 160 at 628-30.
179. Marilyn Waring, "Gender and International Law: The Right to Development" (1992) Aust. YB. Int'l L. 177;
180. Hilary Charlesworth, "The Public/Private Distinction and the Right to Development in International Law" (1992) Aust. YB. Int'l L. 190.
181. Shirley Wang, "The Maturation of Gender Equality into Customary International Law" (1995) Int'l L. and Politics 899.
182. Charlesworth, Chinkin, and Wright, supra note 160 at 621-34.
183. Copelon, supra note 54.
184. Judith Gardam, "Gender and Non-Combatant Immunity" (1993) 3 Transnational Law and Contemporary Problems 345-348 [hereinafter "Non-Combatant"] .
185. Bartlett, S. "Feminist Legal Methods" (1990) 103 Harv. L.R. 829-837.
186. Judith Gardam, "A Feminist Analysis of International Humanitarian Law" (1992) Aust. Y.B. Int'l L. 265 at 266.
187. Charlesworth, Chinkin, and Wright, supranote 160 at 613.
188. Cynthia Enloe, The Morning After: Sexual Politics at the End of the Cold War Go (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1993).
189. Christine Chinkin, "Peace and Force in International Law"
190. Dallmeyer, supra note 59 at 204-8.
191. Gardam, "Non-Combatant" supranote 167 at 348.
192. J. Ann Tickner, "Feminist Approaches to Issues of War and Peace" in Dallmeyer, supranote 59 at 271.
193. Enloe, supranote 170 at 240.
194. MacKinnon, supra note 137 at 91.
195. Hilary Charlesworth, "Worlds Apart: Public/Private Distinctions in International Law" in Margaret Thornton, ed., Public and Private: Feminist Legal Debates 243-255 (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1995) [hereinafter "Worlds Apart"].
196. Ray, supra note 53 at 831.
197. Charlesworth, "Worlds Apart," supranote 176 at 246.
198. Rhonda Copelon, "Gendered War Crimes: Reconceptualizing Rape in Time of War" in Julie Peters and Andrea Wolper, eds., Women's Rights, Human Rights 208 (New York: Routledge, 1995).
199. Charlesworth, "Worlds Apart", supranote 176 at 254.
200. Shelley Wright, "Economic Rights, Social Justice and the State: A Feminist Reappraisal" in Dallmeyer, supranote 59 at 128-29.
201. Charlesworth, "Worlds Apart" supra note 176 at 249.
202. Askin, supra note 17;
203. Chinkin, supra note 171;
204. Christine Chinkin, "Rape and Sexual Abuse of Women in International Law" (1994) 5 E.J.I.L. 326;
205. Copelon, supranote 54;
206. Gardam, "Gendered Regime," supranote 59;
207. Gardam, "Non-Combatant", supranote 167;
208. Judith Gardam, "A Feminist Analysis of Certain Aspects of International Humanitarian Law" (1992) Aust. YB. Int'l L. 265;
209. Kalajdzic, supranote 60;
210. Niarchos, supranote So;
211. Meron, supranote 80.
212. Gardam, "Gendered Regime," supranote 59 at 174-75.
213. Gardam, "Non-Combatant", supranote 167 at 349-50.
214. Geneva Conventions, supranote 15.
215. Gardam, "Non-Combatant," supra note 167 at 353.
216. International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Prosecutors. Dusko Tadic: Opinion and Judgment, Case No. IT-Q4-I-T, May 7, 1997 at 227-28.
217. Gardam, "Non-Combatant," supmnote 167 at 354.
218. Gardam points to the Persian Gulf War where aerial bombardment was preferred over a ground assault: Ibid., 355.
219. Karsten, Law, Soldiers, and Combat 164 (London: Greenwood Press, 1978).
220. Gordon Prange, with Donald Goldstein and Katherine Dillon, Pearl Harbor: The Verdict of'History 333 (New York: Penguin Books, 1986).
221. Burnett, supra note 26 at 77.
222. Karsten, supra note 194 at 70.
223. Gardam, "Non-Combatant," supra note 167 at 369.
224. Karsten, supra note 194 at 32.
225. Celebicijudgment, supra note 10 at 280.
226. Motion for Acquittal, supra note 148 at 37.
227. International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, The Prosecutor's Response to the Pre-Trial Briefs of the Accused (Celebici), Case No. IT-g6-2i-T, 18 April 1997 at 2 [hereinafter Prosecutor's Response].
228. Motion for Acquittal, supra note 148 at 49.
229. Prosecutor's Response, supra note 210 at 2.
230. Motion for Acquittal, supra note 148 at 44.
231. Celebiajudgment, supra note 10 at 263.
232. Ms. Cecez, since he could notice that she "had been raped because there was a big trace of sperm left on the bed"