Attempts to define ‘terrorism’ in international law

Netherlands International Law Review

Volumn 52, Issue 1, 2005, Pages 57-83

  Saul, Ben ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES   (Australia)

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EID: 85006832237     PISSN: 0165070X     EISSN: 17416191     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0165070X05000574     Document Type: Article

References (186)

1. The international and regional treaties are available at: .
2. S. Witten, The International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings’, AJIL (1998) p. 774 at p. 775.
3. I. Lambert, Terrorism and Hostages in International Law: A Commentary on the Hostages Convention 1979 (Cambridge, Grotius 1990) p. 49.
4. Human Rights in the World
5. I. Brownlie, Principles of Public International Law, 5th edn. (Oxford, Clarendon Press 1998) p. 12. 6. League of Nations (LoN), Committee of Experts for the Codification of International Criminal Law, Replies of Governments 1927, LoN Doc. C.196.M.70.1927. V, p. 221.
6. Terrorism was discussed at the 3rd (Brussels 1930), 4th (Paris 1931), 5th (Madrid 1933) and 6th (Copenhagen 1935) International Conferences for the Unification of Criminal Law: G. Bouthoul, 'Definitions of Terrorism’, In D. Carlton and C. Schaerf, eds., International Terrorism and World Security (London, Croom Helm 1975) p. 72; B. Zlataric, 'History of International Terrorism and its Legal Control’, in M.C. Bassiouni, ed., International Terrorism and Political Crimes (Springfield, Illinois, Charles C. Thomas 1975) p. 474 at pp. 478 - 482; T. Franck and B. Lockwood, 'Preliminary Thoughts towards an International Convention on Terrorism’, 68 AJIL (1974) p. 69 at pp. 75–76.
7. Final Commission Proposal, quoted in Zlataric, Human Rights in the World n. 7, at p. 479.
8. Zlataric, Human Rights in the World n. 7, at p. 479.
9. Definitions quoted in Zlataric, Human Rights in the World n. 7, at pp. 479–480.
10. Human Rights in the World, at p. 480.
11. Human Rights in the World 13. Human Rights in the World, at p. 480.
12. Human Rights in the World
13. Human Rights in the World, at p. 481.
14. LoN Committee for the International Repression of Terrorism (CIRT), 'Texts adopted by the 6th International Conference for the Unification of Criminal Law (Copenhagen, 31 Aug-3 Sept 1935)’, Geneva, 7 January 1936, LoN Doc. CRT.17 ('Copenhagen Draft’).
15. Quoted in Zlataric, Human Rights in the World n. 7, at p. 482.
16. Including instigating a catastrophe or calamity, polluting drinking water, spreading contagious diseases, destroying public utilities and using explosives in a public place.
17. Copenhagen Draft, Human Rights in the World n. 16, at p. 1. 20. LoN (CIRT), 'Preliminary Draft Convention drawn up by the Executive Bureau of the International Criminal Police Commission’, Geneva, 11 April 1935, LoN Doc. CRT.3 ('Vienna Draft’), p. 9.
18. Copenhagen Draft, Human Rights in the World n. 16, at p. 1.
19. H. Donnedieu De Vabres, 'La repression internationale du terrorisme - les conventions de Geneve (16 novembre 1937)’, Rev. D Int. Leg. Comp. (1938) p. 45; G. Marston, 'Early Attempts to Suppress Terrorism: The Terrorism and International Criminal Court Conventions of 1937’, 73 BYIL (2002) p. 293; P. Kovacs, 'La Societe des Nations et son action apres Tattentat contre Alexandre, roi de Yougoslavie’, 6 J History International L (2004) p. 65; J. Starke, 'The Convention for the Prevention and Punishment of Terrorism’, 19 BYIL (1938) p. 214; B. Saul, 'The Legal Response of the League of Nations to Terrorism’,J International Criminal Justice (forthcoming 2005).
20. L. Walters, A History of the League of Nations (London, Oxford University Press 1969) p. 599.
21. In re Pavelic and Kwaternik, Ann. Dig, and Reports of PIL Cases (1933–34), Case Nquo. 158, p. 372; B. Lerencz, An International Criminal Court, Vol. 1 London, Oceana Publications 1980 p. 48; Walters, Human Rights in the World n. 23, at p. 602.
22. Cited in R v. Governor of Pentonville Prison Ex p Cheng[1973] AC 931. 26. Walters, Human Rights in the World n. 23, at p. 604.
23. Zlataric, Human Rights in the World n. 7, at p. 481.
24. Walters, Human Rights in the World n. 23, at pp. 244–255.
25. Human Rights in the World, at pp. 246, 600.
26. LoN (CIRT), Geneva, 10 April 1935, LoN Doc. CRT 1.
27. 1st Session, April-May 1935; 2nd Session, January 1936; 3rd Session, April 1937. Members included Belgium, UK, Chile, France, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Romania, USSR, Spain and Switzerland.
28. By virtue of the place of preparation or execution, or the nationality of perpetrators or victims: LoN, International Conference Proceedings on the Repression of Terrorism, Geneva, 1–16 November 1937, LoN Doc. C.94.M.47.1938. V, annex I, p. 183.
29. LoN (CIRT), Reports to Council, Geneva: 1st Session (8 May 1935, LoN Doc. C.184. M. 102.1935.V); 2nd Session (10 February 1936, LoN Doc. A.7.1936.V); 3rd Session (26 April 1937, LoN Doc. V. Legal 1937.V.l); see also LoN Assembly (17th Ordinary Session), Records - Committee Mtgs (1st Committee: Constitutional and legal's Questions), Geneva, LoN 0/(1936) (Special Suppl.) p. 156. 34. LoN Final Act of Conference, Geneva, 16 November 1937, LoN Doc. C.548.M385.1937. V; 19 LoN Of (1938) p. 23, in Y. Alexander, eds., Control of Terrorism: International Documents (New York, Crane Russak 1979) p. 19; Ferencz, Human Rights in the World n. 24, at p. 380.
30. League Convention, in International Conference Proceedings, Human Rights in the World n. 32, annex I, p. 5; and 1937 Convention for the Creation of an International Criminal Court, in International Conference Proceedings, Human Rights in the World, n. 32. The latter treaty attracted fewer signatories and never came into force. A State Party was entitled, instead of prosecuting, or extraditing a suspect to another State Party, to send the suspect for trial before the international criminal court.
31. European states: Albania, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, France, Greece, Monaco, Netherlands, Norway, Romania, Spain, Yugoslavia. American states: Argentina, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Haiti, Peru, Venezuela. Other regions: USSR, Turkey, (British) India and Egypt, along with a small state, Estonia. Monaco subsequently signed: Starke, Human Rights in the World n. 22, at p. 214.
32. Starke, Human Rights in the World, at p. 215.
33. 3rd Session Report, Human Rights in the World n. 33, at p. 2; 1st Committee Records, Human Rights in the World n. 33, at p. 30 (Romania), p. 36 (Yugoslavia), p. 38 (Sweden); LoN (CIRT), Observations by Governments (Series I), 7 September 1936, LoN Doc. A.24.1936. V (Norway); LoN (CIRT), Observations by Governments, 30 March 1937, LoN Doc. C.194.M. 139.1937. V, pp. 1–2 (Czechoslovakia); Letters from H. McKinnnon-Wood (UK Foreign Office, Geneva) to L. Brass (UK Home Office, London) and J. Fischer-Williams (Oxford), 30 March 1937, LoN Archives Geneva Doc. 3A/20521/15085/ XIX. 39. Including wilfully: 'causing death or grievous bodily harm or loss of liberty’ to protected persons and public officials (Art. 2 (1)); destroying or damaging public property of another state (Art. 2(2)); endangering the lives of the public (Art. 2(3)); attempting to commit offences (Art. 2(4)); manufacturing, obtaining, possessing, or supplying arms, ammunition, explosives or harmful substances with a view to committing an offence in any country (Art. 2(5)); and conspiracy, incitement, direct public incitement, wilful participation, and knowing assistance (Art. 3).
34. International Conference Proceedings, Human Rights in the World n. 32, at p. 72 (Yugoslavia), p. 63 (Spain).
35. LoN CIRT, 'Legislation regarding political terrorist crimes: Study by T. Givenovitch’, Geneva, 3, May 1935, LoN Doc. CRT. 9, p. 4.
36. International Conference Proceedings, Human Rights in the World n. 32, at p. 81 (Yugoslavia), p. 80 (Spain), p. 78 (France).
37. 1st Committee Records, Human Rights in the World n. 33, at p. 32 (Belgium); Observations by Governments (1937), Human Rights in the World n. 38, at p. 2 (Czechoslovakia); 2nd Session Report, Human Rights in the World n. 33, appendix III, p. 16 (Romania).
38. Observations by Governments (1937), Human Rights in the World n. 38, at p. 3 (Czechoslovakia); 1st Committee Records, Human Rights in the World n. 33, at p. 45 (Romania); International Conference Proceedings, Human Rights in the World n. 32, at p. 77 (Netherlands), p. 75 (Poland).
39. Human Rights in the World, at pp. 75–76 (UK, USSR, Poland).
40. As proposed in the 2nd Session Draft, Art. 2, in 2nd Session Report, Human Rights in the World n. 33; and by the UK: CIRT, 'Suggestion by the British expert for an article to be inserted in the draft convention’, Geneva, 1, May 1935, LoN Archives Doc. 3A/17592/15085/VII.
41. International Conference Proceedings, Human Rights in the World n. 32, at p. 72 (Yugoslavia) and 2nd Session Report, Human Rights in the World n. 33, appendix III, p. 15 (Romania). 48. 2nd Session Report, Human Rights in the World n. 33, appendix III, p. 14.
42. E. Hobsbawm, Age of Extremes (London, Abacus 1995) p. 68.
43. Letter from the Sozialdemokratischen Partei Deutschlands (Prague) to CIRT (Geneva), 30 October 1937, LoN Archives Doc. 3A/15105/15085/XIII.
44. League Convention, Art. 8.
45. 1st Committee Records, Human Rights in the World n. 33, at p. 40 (UK); International Conference Proceedings, Human Rights in the World n. 32, at p. 53 (UK), p. 54 (Norway), p. 62 (Belgium); Observations by Governments (Series I),Human Rights in the World n. 38, at p. 3 (Belgium).
46. 1st Committee Records, Human Rights in the World n. 33, at p. 48 (Linland), p. 37 (Norway), p. 39 (Nether-lands), p. 41 (Sweden, Prance), pp. 33, 43 (Belgium); Observations by Governments (Series I),Human Rights in the World n. 38, at p. 11 (Netherlands).
47. Walters, Human Rights in the World n. 23, at p. 605.
48. Starke, Human Rights in the World n. 22, at p. 215.
49. Quoted in I. Brownlie, International Law and the Use of Force by States (Oxford, Clarendon Press 1963) p. 340.
50. See below, section 4. 58. UNGA Res. 49/60 (1994), annexed Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism, para. 3.
51. Home Secretary[1996] AC 742, at pp. 772–773 (Lord Mustill).
52. ILC Draft Code of Offences against the Peace and Security of Mankimd (Part I), in ILC 6th Session Report (3 June-28 July 1954), UN Doc. A/2693, as requested by UNGA Res. 177 (11) (1947).
53. ILC Yearbook (1950–11) p. 59.
54. Draft Code, crime no. IV, in Report by Special Rapporteur Spiropoulos, 26 April 1950, UN Doc. A/CN.4/25, ILC Yearbook (1950–11) p. 253 at p. 263; see also ILC Yearbook (1950–1) pp. 127–128 (Rapporteur Spiropoulos).
55. ILC Yearbook (1950–1) p. 126 (Rapporteur Spiropoulos), p. 166 (Cordova); ILC Yearbook (1951–11) p. 58 (Rapporteur Spiropoulos), the latter conduct being left to national law. A proposal to delete 'organized’ was not accepted: ILC Yearbook (1950–1) p. 127 (Francois).
56. ILC Yearbook (1950–1) pp. 129, 166 (ILC Chairperson).
57. Human Rights in the World, at p. 129 (Amado). 66.ILC Yearbook (1954–11) p. 117 (UK).
58. ILC Yearbook (1954–1) p. 130.
59. Human Rights in the World, at p. 131.
60. ILC Yearbook (1950–1) p. 218 (Alfaro).
61. Human Rights in the World, at p. 126.
62. ILC Yearbook (1950–11) p. 253 at pp. 264–266.
63. See, respectively: (a) UN War Crimes Commission, History of the United Nations War Crimes Commission and the Development of the Laws of War (London, HMSO 1948) ch. III and Commission on the Responsibility of the Authors of the War and on Enforcement of Penalties, Report to the Preliminary Peace Conference, 29 March 1919, in 14 AJIL (1920) p. 95 at p. 113; (b) UN War Crimes Commission, Legal Committee Report, 9 May 1944; (c) Australian War Crimes Act 1945, s. 3(ii): 'murder or massacres - systematic terrorism’, and Chinese Law, 24 October 1946, Art. III(l): war crime of 'Planned slaughter, murder or other terrorist action’.
64. ILC Yearbook (1950–1) p. 127 (Hudson, Frangois).
65. Draft Code, Art. 1 (5), in ILC Yearbook (1951–11) p. 58.
66. ILC Yearbook (1950–1) p. 63 (Alfaro and Kerno respectively).
67. Human Rights in the World
68. Human Rights in the World, at pp. 127–128 (Amado and Yepes respectively).
69. R. Higgins, 'The General International Law of Terrorism’, In R. Higgins and M. Flory, eds., Terrorism and International Law (London, Routledge 1997) p. 13 at pp. 26 – 27. 79.ILC Yearbook (1950–1) p. 127 (El Khoury).
70. UNGA Res. 897 (IX) (1954).
71. UNGA Res. 3314 (XXIX) (1974).
72. ICC PrepCom Report, UN Diplomatic Conference of Plenipotentiaries on an ICC, Rome, 15 June-17 July 1998, UN Doc. A/Conf.l83/2/Add. 1 (14 April 1998), Art 5. Aggression may be defined by future amendment to the 1998 Rome Statute.
73. In particular, the killing of 26 persons at Lod Airport in Israel and a shooting at the apartment of a Soviet diplomat at the UN in NY: J. Murphy, 'United Nations Proposals on the Control and Repression of Terrorism’, in Bassiouni, ed., Human Rights in the World n. 7, p. 493 at p. 496.
74. UN Doc. A/C.6/L. 850 (1972), reprinted in 11 ILM p. 1382; see also J. Moore, 'Toward Legal Restraints on International Terrorism’, 67 ASIL Proc. (1973) p. 88 at pp. 91 - 93; J. Dugard, 'Towards the Definition of International Terrorism’, 67 ASIL Proc. (1973) p. 94 at pp. 98–100.
75. Murphy, Human Rights in the World n. 83, at p. 505.
76. Acts must be committed by a foreign national (Art. 1ihkck(a)), and outside the target state, or inside the target state but against a foreign national (Art. 1(b)). A state’s territory includes all territory under its jurisdiction or administration: Art. 2(c).
77. US Draft Convention, Art. 1(d).
78. Human Rights in the World, Art. 14.
79. J. Murphy, 'Defining International Terrorism: A Way Out of the Quagmire’, Israel Yearbook on Human Rights (1989) p. 13 at p. 16; J. Norton Moore, 'The Need for an International Convention’, in Bassiouni, ed., Human Rights in the World n. 7, p. 437 at p. 443.
80. Murphy, Human Rights in the World n. 83, at p. 496.
81. US Draft Convention, Art. 1(c).
82. Human Rights in the World, Art. 13.
83. Human Rights in the World, Art. 13(a)-(b). 94. Franck and Lockwood, Human Rights in the World n. 7, at p. 76.
84. Human Rights in the World
85. Murphy, Human Rights in the World n. 89, at p. 17; Murphy, Human Rights in the World n. 83, at p. 499.
86. Murphy, Human Rights in the World n. 83, at p. 500.
87. Human Rights in the World, at p. 502.
88. UNGA Res. 36(106) (1981).
89. ILC Yearbook (1991–11) p. 94, para. 175; see also ILC (47th Session), 13th Report of Special Rapporteur (1995), UN Doc. A/CN.4/466.
90. ILC Yearbook (1990) p. 336. 102. Emphasis added. Draft Art. 16 (1) of 1990 is similar: ILC Yearbook (1990) p. 336.
91. ILC Yearbook (1990) p. 338 (Koroma), p. 339 (Pellet, Rao).
92. Human Rights in the World (Koroma).
93. Human Rights in the World, at p. 338 (Mahiou, Calero Rodriguez); L. Sunga, The Emerging System of International Criminal Law (The Hague, Kluwer Law International 1997) p. 200.
94. Human Rights in the World, at p. 338 (Njenga), p. 339 (Benama).
95. Human Rights in the World, at p. 338 (Pellet, Tomuschat, Njenga) and p. 338 (Pellet) respectively. Cf., 1999 Terrorist Financing Convention, Art. 5, establishing corporate liability where a person 'responsible for the management or control’ of a financial entity 'in that capacity’ commits a financing offence.
96. ILC (45th Session), Comments and Observations from Governments (1993), UN Doc. A/CN.4/448; Sunga, Human Rights in the World nx. 105, at p. 202 (Belarus, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Paraguay, Sweden and the UK).
97. Sunga, Human Rights in the World n. 105, at p. 202 (referring to Australia and the Netherlands).
98. Human Rights in the World
99. ILC, Report on 47th Session (2 May-21 July 1995), UNGAOR Suppl. 10, UN Doc. A/50/10, 58.
100. ILC Yearbook (1995–1) p. 38 (Al-Khasawneh).
101. Human Rights in the World, at p 18 (Vargas Carreno). 114. Human Rights in the World, at p. 45 (Chairperson Rao).
102. Human Rights in the World, at p. 41 (Rosenstock) and pp. 6–7 (Pellet), p. 8 (Rosenstock), p. 15 (Mikulka) respectively.
103. Human Rights in the World, at p. 21 (Jacovides), p. 26 (Kramer), p. 40 (Razafindralambo), p. 8 (Rosenstock) respectively.
104. ILC, Report on 48th Session (6 May-26 July 1996), UN Doc. A/51/10, eh. 11 (2), paras. 46–48
105. See 1990 Draft, Art. 16, in ILC, Report on 42nd Session (1990), UN Doc. A/45/10, eh. II, paras. 20-158; 1991–1995 Drafts, Art. 24, ILC 43rd-47th Session, in 13th Report of Special Rapporteur, Human Rights in the World n. 100, and ILC, Report on 47th Session, Human Rights in the World n. Ill, eh. II(B)(l)-(3), paras. 41–125, 126–139.
106. ILC, Report on 47th Session, Human Rights in the World, eh. II, paras. 27–143.
107. ILC, Report on 48th Session, Human Rights in the World n. 117, eh. II, commentary on draft Art. 20, para. 14.
108. UNGA Res. 51(160).
109. Draft Rome Statute, Art. 5, in ICC PrepCom Report, UN Diplomatic Conference of Plenipotentiaries on an ICC, Rome, 15 June-17 July 1998, UN Doc. A/Conf. l 83/2/Add. 1 (14 April 1998), p. 2. 123. 1971 Montreal Convention; 1970 Hague Convention; 1973 Protected Persons Convention; 1979 Hostages Convention; 1988 Rome Convention and 1988 Rome Protocol.
110. K. Kittichaisaree, International Criminal Law (Oxford, Oxford University Press 2001) p. 227: Algeria, Armenia, Congo, India, Israel, Kyrgyz Republic, Libya, Macedonia, Russia, Sri Lanka, Tajikistan and Turkey; see also C. Silverman, 'An Appeal to the United Nations: Terrorism must come within the Jurisdiction of an International Criminal Court’, 4 New England and Comp. LAnn. (1998), available at .
111. Kittichaisaree, Human Rights in the World n. 124 (Algeria, India, Sri Lanka, Turkey); see UN Doc. A/CONF. 183/C. l/L.27/Corr. 1 (29 June 1998).
112. ICC PrepCom, Proceedings Summary of, 25 March-12 April 1996, UN Doc. A/AC.249/1 (7 May 1996), para. 66.
113. Human Rights in the World
114. Res. E, annexed to the Final Act of the UN Diplomatic Conference of Plenipotentiaries on an ICC, 17 July 1998, UN Doc. A/Conf. 183/10.
115. ICC PrepCom, Human Rights in the World n. 122, para. 67; Kittichaisaree, Human Rights in the World n. 124, at pp. 227 - 228; A. Cassese, International Criminal Law (Oxford, Oxford University Press 2003) p. 125; see also N. Boister, 'The Exclusion of Treaty Crimes from the Jurisdiction of the Proposed International Criminal Court: Law, Pragmatism, Politics’, 3 J of Armed Conflict Law (1998) p. 27. 130. M. Arsanjani, The 1998 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court’, 93 AJIL (1999) p. 22 at p. 29; Cassese, Human Rights in the World n. 129, at p. 125; see also ICC PrepCom, Human Rights in the World n. 122.
116. D. Scheffer, 'Developments at Rome Treaty Conference’, Testimony of US Ambassador at Large for War Crimes Issues and Head of US Delegation to the Rome Conference, US Senate Foreign Relations Committee, Washington DC, 23 July 1998.
117. Cassese, Human Rights in the World n. 12987, at p. 125; A. Cassese, 'Terrorism is Also Disrupting Some Crucial Legal Categories of International Law’,s EJIL (2001) p. 993 at p. 994.
118. Kittichaisaree, Human Rights in the World n. 124, at p. 227.
119. Res. E, Human Rights in the World n. 128; see also V. Proulx, 'Rethinking the Jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court in the Post-September 11th Era: Should Acts of Terrorism Qualify as Crimes against Humanity?’, 19 American Univ. International L Rev. (2004) p. 1009; F. McKay, 'US Unilateralism and International Crimes: The International Criminal Court and Terrorism’, 36 Cornell ILJ (2004) p. 455; A. Rubin, 'Legal Response to Terror: An International Criminal Court?’, 43 Harvard ILJ (2002) p. 65; T. Sailer, 'The International Criminal Court: An Argument to Extend its Jurisdiction to Terrorism and a Dismissal of US Objections’, 13 Temple International and Comp. LJ (1999) p. 311; S.W. Krohne, 'The United States and the World Need an International Criminal Court as an Ally in the War against Terrorism’, 8 Indiana International and Comp. L Rev. (1997) p. 159; G. Abi-Saab, 'The Proper Role of International Law in Combating Terrorism’, 1 Chinese JIL (2002) p. 305 at pp. 311-312; Cassese, Human Rights in the World n. 129, at p. 131.
120. Arsanjani, Human Rights in the World n. 130, at p. 31.
121. Rome Statute, Art. 7.
122. Arsanjani, Human Rights in the World n. 130, at p. 31.
123. UNGA Res. 51/ 210 (1996), para. 9. 139. UNGAOR (53rd Session), Ad Hoc Committee Report, Suppl. 37 (A/53/37), p. 6; UNGAOR (52nd Session), Ad Hoc Committee Report (1997), Suppl. 37 (A/52/37), p. 1.
124. UNGA (53rd Session) (6th Committee), Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism: Working Group Report, 22 October 1998, UN Doc. A/C.6/53/L.4, annex I, pp. 4–15.
125. Ad Hoc Committee Report (1998), Human Rights in the World n. 139, annex III, p. 47.
126. UNGAOR (58th Session), Ad Hoc Committee Report (2003), Suppl. 37 (A/58/37), p. 11; UNGAOR (57th Session), Ad Hoc Committee Report (2002), Suppl. 37 (A/57/37); UNGAOR (56th Session),Ad Hoc Committee Report (2001), Suppl. 37 (A/56/37).
127. H. Corell, The International Instruments against Terrorism’, Paper at Symposium on Combating International Terrorism: The Contribution of the UN, Vienna, 3–4 June 2002, p. 12.
128. Vienna Convention, Art. 7.
129. '[I]n a manner which releases or risks the release of radioactive material’.
130. Ancillary offences are found in Draft Nuclear Terrorism Convention, Arts. 2 (2)(a)-(b), 3, 4(a)-(c).
131. Ad Hoc Committee Report (2003), Human Rights in the World n. 142, at pp. 11–12. 148. Draft Nuclear Terrorism Convention, Art. 4.
132. Terrorist Bombings Convention, Art. 19.
133. Ad Hoc Committee Report (1998), Human Rights in the World n. 139, annex III, p. 50.
134. Ad Hoc Committee Report (2003), Human Rights in the World n. 142, at pp. 11–12.
135. Ad Hoc Committee Report (1998), Human Rights in the World n. 139, annex III, pp. 46, 47.
136. Especially relating to a proposal to draft a protocol to the 1980 Vienna Convention; and the 1997 Terrorist Bombings Convention and the 1968 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty: Human Rights in the World, at p. 45.
137. Human Rights in the World, at pp. 47, 49.
138. Human Rights in the World, at p. 50.
139. UNGA Res. 58/81 (2004), paras. 15–19.
140. N. Rostow, 'Before and After: The Changed UN Response to Terrorism since September 11th’, 35 Cornell ILJ (2002) p. 475 at p. 489. 158. UNGA Res. 54/110 (1999); UNGAOR (55th Session), Ad Hoc Committee Report (2000), Suppl. 37 (A/55/37); see S. Subedi, 'The UN Response to International Terrorism in the Aftermath of the Terrorist Attacks in America and the Problem of the Definition of Terrorism in International Law’, 4 International L Forum (2002) p. 159; L. Bondi, 'Legitimacy and Legality: Key Issues in the Fight against Terrorism’, Fund for Peace, Washington DC, 11 September 2002, pp. 26–30.
141. Ad Hoc Committee Report (2000), Human Rights in the World n. 158, at p. 4.
142. Abi-Saab, Human Rights in the World n. 134, at 311–312.
143. See Ad Hoc Committee Report (2001), Human Rights in the World n. 142; UNGA (57th Session) (6th Committee), Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism: Working Group Report, 16 October 2002, A/C.6/57/L.9, annex II, pp. 7–8.
144. Ad Hoc Committee Report (2003), Human Rights in the World n. 142, at p. 8.
145. Human Rights in the World, at p. 6.
146. UNGA, Ad Hoc Committee, 'Finalizing Treaty Requires Agreement on “Armed Forces”, “Foreign Occupation”, Anti-Terrorism Committee Told’, PR L/2993, 1 February 2002.
147. UNGA Res. 58/81 (2004), paras. 14–19.
148. Ad Hoc Committee Report (2002), Human Rights in the World n. 142, annex I (Discussion paper by the Bureau).
149. UNGA (56th Session) (6th Committee), Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism: Working Group Report, 29 October 2001, UN Doc. A/C.6/56/L.9, annex I, p. 16 (informal Coordinator texts); Ad Hoc Committee Report (2002), Human Rights in the World n. 142, at pp. 6–7.
150. Ancillary offences are found in Draft Comprehensive Convention, Arts. 2 (2), (3) and (2)(a)-(c).
151. Draft Comprehensive Convention, Art. 14. 170. 2002 European Union Framework Decision on Combating Terrorism (2002/475/JHA) (adopted 13 June 2002, 0/L164/3, 22 June 2002, entered into force 22 June 2002), recital 11.
152. Although NGOs have raised concerns about aspects of definition in Arts. 2 and 18: Amnesty International, 'Draft Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism: A Threat to Human Rights Standards’, Statement to UNGA 56th Session (2002), AI Index IOR 51/009/2001, 22 October 2001; Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch, 'Comprehensive Convention against International Terrorism’, Joint Letter to Ambassadors, 28 January 2002.
153. Subedi, Human Rights in the World n. 158, at p. 163.
154. Human Rights in the World
155. Human Rights in the World, at p. 165.
156. Austria, Australia, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, India, Israel, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Spain, Sweden, UK, US.
157. Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, Art. 19(c), does not permit reservations which are incompatible with the object and purpose of a treaty. 177. 1997 Terrorist Bombings Convention, Art. 19 (2), also stating that the terms 'armed forces’ and 'armed conflict’ are understood according to, and governed by, IHL. Thus non-state armed forces may also be covered: Witten, Human Rights in the World n. 1, at p. 780. Some state bombings outside armed conflict, and not by armed forces in their official duties, might still be unlawful, such as France’s bombing of the Rainbow Warrior in New Zealand in 1986: R. Marauhn, 'Terrorism: Addendum’ in R. Bernhardt, ed., Encyclopaedia of Public International Law, Vol. 4 (Amsterdam, North Holland 2000) p. 849 at p. 853.
158. OIC proposal, in Ad Hoc Committee Report (2002), Human Rights in the World n. 142, at p. 17.
159. UNGAOR (59th Session), Ad Hoc Committee Report (2004), Suppl. 37 (A/59/37), p. 11, para. 6.
160. S. von Schorlemer, 'Human Rights: Substantive and Institutional Implications of the War on Terror’, 14 EJIL (2003) p. 265 at p. 272; C. Walter, 'Defining Terrorism in National and International Law’, in C. Walter, et al., eds., Terrorism as a Challenge for National and International Law (Heidelberg, Springer 2003) p. 23 at pp. 39–40.
161. ICRC Report, 'Terrorism and International Law: Challenges and Responses: The Complementary Nature of Human Rights Law, International Humanitarian Law and Refugee Law’, Geneva, 2002, p. 5.
162. Walter, Human Rights in the World n. 86180, at pp. 17–18.
163. Ad Hoc Committee Report (2003), Human Rights in the World n. 142, at p. 9.
164. Ad Hoc Committee Report (2004), Human Rights in the World n. 179, at p. 11, para. 7. 185. OTC proposal, in Ad Hoc Committee Report (2002) Human Rights in the World n. 142, annex IV, p. 17.
165. Rostow, Human Rights in the World n. 157, at p. 488.
166. M. Halberstam, 'The Evolution of the United Nations Position on Terrorism: From Exempting National Liberation Movements to Criminalizing Terrorism Wherever and by Whomever Committed’, Columbia J Transnational L (2003) p. 573 at p. 582.
167. UNGA (52nd Session) (6th Committee), Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism: Working Group Report, 10 October 1997, UN Doc. A/C.6/52/L.3, p. 19 (Syria), p. 31 (Egypt); UNGAOR (52nd Session), Ad Hoc Committee Report (1997), Suppl. 37 (A/52/37), p. 38 (Paki-stan).
168. UN Secretary-General, 'Addressing Assembly on Terrorism, Calls for “Immediate, Far-Reaching Changes” in UN Response to Terror’, UN PR, UN Doc. SG/SM/7977 GA/9920, 1 October 2001.
169. Ad Hoc Committee Report (2004), Human Rights in the World n. 179, at p. 7, para. 16; p. 11, para. 8.
170. In the 1997 Terrorist Bombings Convention, 'military forces of a State’ is defined in Art. 1 (4) as 'the armed forces of a State which are organized, trained and equipped under its internal law for the primary purpose of national defence or security and persons acting in support of those armed forces who are under their formal command, control and responsibility’. Proposals to explicitly refer to official duties such as law enforcement, evacuation operations, peace operations, UN operations, or humanitarian relief were not adopted: Working Group Report (1997), Human Rights in the World n. 188, at p. 58 (Australia, Germany), p. 59 (Rep. Korea, Costa Rica, NZ).
171. Including IHL the law human rightscriminal law international, the law on the non-use of force and non-intervention, and the law of state responsibility. 193. ICRC, Human Rights in the World n. 181.
172. Human Rights in the World
173. Human Rights in the World
174. Fourth Geneva Convention, Art. 33 (1) (prohibiting 'all measures… of terrorism’); 1977 Protocol I, Art. 51(2) and 1977 Protocol II, Art. 13(2) (prohibiting 'acts or threats of violence the primary purpose of which is to spread terror among the civilian population’); 1977 Protocol II, Art. 4(2)(d) (prohibiting 'acts of terrorism’); see also 1923 Hague Draft Rules Concerning the Control of Wireless Telegraphy in Time of War and Air Warfare, in 17 AJIL (1923) Suppl. p. 245; 1994 ICTR Statute, Art. 4(2)(d); 2000 Statute of the Special Court for Sierra Leone (annexed to UNSC Res. 1315 (2000), Art. 3(d). In the Galic case, ICTY-98-29-T (5 December 2003), the ICTY found that the prohibition in Art. 51(2) of 1977 Protocol I gives rise to individual criminal liability as an implicit grave breach of Protocol I.
175. Walter, Human Rights in the World n. 180, at 18–19.
176. See discussion of an identical provision in the 1997 Terrorist Bombings Convention: Ad Hoc Committee Report (1997), Human Rights in the World n. 188, at p. 53 (Rapporteur). 199. UNGA (57th Session) (6th Committee), Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism: Working Group Report, 16 October 2002, A/C.6/57/L.9, annex II, p. 8.
177. Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, 1969, Art. 30.
178. Ad Hoc Committee Report (2002), Human Rights in the World n. 142, at p. 7; an approach adopted by the 1972 US Draft Convention.
179. Ad Hoc Committee Report (2003), Human Rights in the World n. 142, at p. 9; Ad Hoc Committee Report (2004), Human Rights in the World n. 179, at p. 12, para. 14.
180. Particularly Draft Comprehensive Convention, Art. 18.
181. G. Levitt, 'Is “Terrorism” Worth Defining?’, 13 Ohio Northern Univ. L Rev. (1986) p. 97 atp. 111.
182. UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, Arts. 2, 5. The UN General Assembly has often expressed concern at links between terrorist groups and violent organized crime: Preambles to UNGA Res. 44/29, (1989); 46/51 (1991), 48/122 (1993); 49/60 (1994); 49/185 (1994); 50/186 (1995); 54/164 (1999); 58/136 (2003). Since the 1980s the categories increasingly converge: W. Laqueur, The New Terrorism: Fanaticism and the Arms of Mass Destruction (London, Phoenix Press 2001) pp. 210–225.
183. G. Fitzmaurice, 'The Definition of Aggression’, 1 ICLQ (1952) p. 137 at pp. 143-144; Brownlie, Human Rights in the World n. 50, at p. 355. 207. Levitt, Human Rights in the World n. 204, at p. 112; Lambert, Human Rights in the World n. 3, at p. 51; Murphy, Human Rights in the World n. 89, at p. 28; Franck and Lockwood, Human Rights in the World n. 7, at pp. 78-79; M.C. Bassiouni, 'A Policy-Oriented Inquiry into the Different Forms and Manifestations of “International Terrorism’”, in M.C. Bassiouni, ed., Legal Responses to International Terrorism (Dordrecht, Martinus Nijhoff 1988) pp. xv, xxix. Political motives may also be difficult to distinguish from criminal or even pathological ones: M. Ignatieff, 'Human Rights, the Laws of War, and Terrorism’, 69 Social Research (2002) p. 1137 at p. 1146; see also J. Burke, 'What exactly does al-Qaeda want?’, Observer, 21 March 2004.
184. Fitzmaurice, Human Rights in the World, n. 206, at pp. 143-144; Brownlie, Human Rights in the World n. 56, at p. 355.
185. Brownlie, Human Rights in the World n. 56, at p. 356.
186. UN High-Level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change, A More Secure World: Our Shared Responsibility (UN December 2004) p. 52; UN Secretary-General’s Report, 'In larger freedom: towards development, security and human rights for all’, UNGA (59th Session), 21 March 2005, UN Doc. A/59/2005, at para. 91.