Numerical modelling of glacial lake outburst floods using physically based dam-breach models

Earth Surface Dynamics

Volumn 3, Issue 1, 2015, Pages 171-199

  Westoby, M J ^a   Brasington, J ^b   Glasser, N F ^c   Hambrey, M J ^c   Reynolds, J M ^d   Hassan, M A A M ^e   Lowe, A ^f  

^a NORTHUMBRIA UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

^b QUEEN MARY UNIVERSITY OF LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^c ABERYSTWYTH UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

^d REYNOLDS INTERNATIONAL LTD   (United Kingdom)

^e HR WALLINGFORD   (United Kingdom)

^f CH2M HILL ^*  (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CATASTROPHIC EVENT; DAM; DAM FAILURE; GLACIAL LAKE; HYDRODYNAMICS; HYDROGRAPH; HYDROGRAPHY; MONTE CARLO ANALYSIS; MORAINE; NUMERICAL MODEL; OUTBURST; PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT; TWO-DIMENSIONAL MODELING;

NEPAL;

EID: 85006508331     PISSN: 21966311     EISSN: 2196632X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5194/esurf-3-171-2015     Document Type: Article

References (115)

1. Alho, P. and Aaltonen, J. :Comparing a 1D hydraulic model with a 2D hydraulic model for the simulation of extreme glacial outburst floods, Hydrol. Process., 22, 1537-1547, 2008.
2. Aronica, G., Hankin, B., and Beven, K. :Uncertainty and equifinality in calibrating distributed roughness coefficients in a flood propagation model with limited data, Adv. Water Resour., 22, 349-365, 1998.
3. Aronica, G., Bates, P. D., and Horritt, M. S. :Assessing the uncertainty in distributed model predictions using observed binary pattern information within GLUE, Hydrol. Process., 16, 2001-2016, 2002.
4. Aronica G., Candela, A., Fabio, P., and Santoro, M. :Estimation of flood inundation probabilities using global hazard indexes based on hydrodynamic variables, Phys. Chem. Earth, 42-44, 119-129, 2012.
5. Astre, H. :SFMToolkit3, availabl at: http://www. visual-experiments.com/demos/sfmtoolkit (last access: 15 February 2015), 2010.
6. Benn, D. I., Wiseman, S., and Hands, K. A. :Growth and drainage of supraglacial lakes on debris-mantled Ngozumpa Glacier, Khumbu Himal, Nepal, J. Glaciol., 47, 626-638, 2001.
7. Benn, D. I., Bolch, T., Hands, K., Gulley, J., Luckman, A., Nicholson, L.I., Quincey, D.J., Thompson, S., Toumi, R., andWiseman, S. :Response of debris-covered glaciers in the Mount Everest region to recent warming and implications for outburst flood hazards, Earth-Sci. Rev., 114, 156-174, 2012.
8. Beven, K. :A manifesto for the equifinality thesis, J. Hydrol., 320, 18-36, 2005.
9. Beven, K. and Binley, A. :The future of distribution models: model calibration and uncertainty prediction, Hydrol. Process., 6, 279-298, 1992.
10. Beven, K. and Freer, J. :Equifinality, data assimilation, and uncertainty estimation in mechanistic modelling of complex environmental systems using the GLUE methodology, J. Hydrol., 249, 11-29, 2001.
11. Beven, K. Smith, P.J., and Wood, A. :On the colour and spin of epistemic error (and what we might do about it), Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 15, 3123-3133, 2011.
12. Beven, K., Lamb, R., Leedal, D., and Hunter, N. :Communicating uncertainty in flood inundation mapping: a case study, Int. J. River Basin Manage., doi:10.1080/15715124.2014.917318, in press, 2014.
13. Blazkova, S. and Beven, K. :Flood frequency estimation by continuous simulation of subcatchment rainfalls and discharges with the aim of improving dam safety assessment in a large basin in the Czech Republic, J. Hydrol., 292, 153-172, 2004.
14. Bohorquez, P. and Darby, S. E. :The use of one- and twodimensional hydraulic modelling to reconstruct a glacial outburst flood in a steep Alpine valley, J. Hydrol., 361, 240-261, 2008.
15. Bolch, T., Kulkarni, A., Kääb, A., Huggel, C., Paul, F., Cogley, J.G., Frey, H., Kargel, J.S., Fujita, K., Scheel, M., Bajracharya, S., and Stoffel, M. :The state and fate of Himalayan glaciers, Science, 336, 310-314, 2012.
16. Bolch, T., Pieczonka, T., and Benn, D. I. :Multi-decadal mass loss of glaciers in the Everest area (Nepal Himalaya) derived from stereo imagery, The Cryosphere, 5, 349-358, doi:10.5194/tc-5- 349-2011, 2011.
17. Brasington, J., Vericat, D., and Rychkov, I. :Modelling river bed morphology, roughness and surface sedimentology using high resolution Terrestrial Laser Scanning, Water Resour. Res., 48, W11519, doi:10.1029/2012WR012223, 2012.
18. Byers, A. C., McKinney, D. C., Somos-Valenzuela, M., Watanabe, T., and Lamsal, D. :Glacial lakes of the Hinku and Hongu valleys, Makalu Barun National Park and Buffer Zone, Nepal, Nat. Hazards, 69, 115-139, 2013.
19. Cao, Z. and Carling, P. :Mathematical modelling of alluvial rivers: reality and myth, Part 1: general overview, Mar. Eng., 154, 207-219, 2002.
20. Castellarin, A., Merz, R., and Bloschl, G. :Probabilistic envelope curves for extreme rainfall events, J. Hydrol., 378, 263-271, 2009.
21. Cenderelli, D. A. and Wohl, E. E. :Peak discharge estimates of glacial-lake outburst floods and "normal" climatic floods in the Mount Everest region, Nepal, Geomorphology, 40, 57-90, 2001.
22. Cenderelli, D. A. and Wohl, E. E. :Flow hydraulics and geomorphic effects of glacial-lake outburst floods in the Mount Everest region, Nepal, Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 28, 385-407, 2003.
23. Chanson, H. :The Hydraulics of Open Channel Flow, 2nd Edn., Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, 650 pp., 2011.
24. Chen, Y. H. and Anderson, B. A. :Development of a methodology for estimating embankment damage due to flood overtopping, US Federal Highway Administration Report No. FHWA/RD- 86/126, US Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C., 1986.
25. Chow, V. T. :Open-channel hydraulics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 677 pp., 1959.
26. Clague, J. J. and Evans, S. G. :A review of catastrophic drainage of moraine-dammed lakes in British Columbia, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 19, 1763-1783, 2000.
27. Costa, J. E. and Schuster, R. L. :The formation and failure of natural dams, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 100, 1054-1068, 1988.
28. Dewals, B., Erpicum, S., Detrembleur, S., Archambeau, P., and Pirotton, M. :Failure of dams arranged in series or in complex, Nat. Hazards, 56, 917-939, 2011.
29. Fonstad, M. A., Dietrich, J. T., Courville, B. C., Jensen, J. L., and Carbonneau, P. E. :Topographic structure from motion: a new development in photogrammetric development, Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 38, 421-430, 2013.
30. Franz, K. J. and Hogue, T. S. :Evaluating uncertainty estimates in hydrologic models: borrowing measures from the forecast verification community, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 15, 3367-3382, doi:10.5194/hess-15-3367-2011, 2011.
31. Freer, J., Beven, K. J., and Peters, N. E. :Multivariate seasonal period model rejection within the generalised likelihood uncertainty estimation procedure, in: Calibration of Watershed Models, edited by: Duan, Q., Gupta, H., Sorooshian, S., Rousseau, A. N., and Turcotte, R., AGU Books, Washington, 69-87, 2002.
32. Frey, H., Haeberli, W., Linsbauer, A., Huggel, C., and Paul, F. :A multi-level strategy for anticipating future glacier lake formation and associated hazard potentials, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 10, 339-352, doi:10.5194/nhess-10-339-2010, 2010.
33. Galay, V. :Glacier Lake Outburst Flood (Jökulhlaup) on the Bothe/Dudh Kosi, August 4, 1985, Internal Report, Water and Energy Committee, Ministry of Water Resources, His Majesty's Government of Nepal, Kathmandu, 1985.
34. Halcrow: ISIS 2D by Halcrow, available at: http://www.halcrow. com/isis/(last access: 3 March 2013), 2012.
35. Hall, J., Tarantola, S., Bates, P. D., and Horritt, M. :Distributed sensitivity analysis of flood inundation model calibration, J. Hydraul. Eng., 131, 117-126, 2005.
36. Hambrey, M. J., Quincey, D. J., Glasser, N. F., Reynolds, J. M., Richardson, S. J., and Clemmens, S. :Sedimentological, geomorphological and dynamic context of debris-mantled glaciers, Mount Everest (Sagarmatha) region, Nepal, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 28, 2361-2389, 2008.
37. Hanson, G. J. and Cook, K. R. :Apparatus, test procedures, and analytical methods to measure soil erodibility in situ, Appl. Eng. Agricult., 20, 455-462, 2004.
38. Harrison, S., Glasser, N. F., Winchester, V., Haresign, E., Warren, C., and Jansson, K. :A glacial lake outburst flood associated with recent mountain glacier retreat, Patagonian Andes, Holocene, 16, 611-620, 2006.
39. Hassan, A. E., Bekhit, H., and Chapman, J. B. :Uncertainty assessment of a stochastic groundwater flow model using GLUE analysis, J. Hydrol., 362, 89-109, 2008.
40. Hassan, M. and Morris, M. :HR-BREACH Model Documentation, HR Wallingford Ltd, Wallingford, Oxfordshire, 2012.
41. Hubbard, B., Heald, A., Reynolds, J. M., Quincey, D., Richardson, S. D., Zapata Luyo, M., Santillan Portilla, N., and Hambrey, M. J. :Impact of a rock avalanche on a moraine-dammed proglacial lake: Laguna Safuna Alta, Cordillera Blanca, Peru, Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 30, 1251-1264, 2005.
42. Huggel, C., Haeberli, W., Kääb, A., Bieri, D., and Richardson, S. :An assessment procedure for glacial hazards in the Swiss Alps, Can. Geotech. J., 41, 1068-1083, 2004.
43. Hunter, N. M., Bates, P. D., Horritt, M. S., De Roo, A. P. J., and Werner, M. G. F. :Utility of different data types for calibrating flood inundation models within a GLUE framework, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 9, 412-430, doi:10.5194/hess-9-412-2005, 2005.
44. Iman, R. L. and Helton, J. C. :An investigation of uncertainty and sensitivity analysis techniques for computer models, Risk Analysis, 8, 71-90, 2006.
45. IMPACT: Investigation of Extreme Flood Processes and Uncertainty: Risk and Uncertainty (WP5) - Technical Report, 44 pp., available at: http://www.impact-project.net (last access: 3 March 2014), 2004.
46. James, M. R. and Robson, S. :Straightforward reconstruction of 3D surfaces and topography with a camera: Accuracy and geoscience applications, J. Geophys. Res., 117, F03017, doi:10.1029/2011JF002289, 2012.
47. Janský, B., Engel, Z., Šobr, M., Beneš, V., Špaček, K., and Yerokhin, S. :The evolution of Petrov lake and moraine dam rupture risk (Tien-Shan, Kyrgyzstan), Nat. Hazards, 50, 83-96, 2009.
48. Javernick, L., Brasington, J., and Caruso, B. :Modelling the topography of shallow braided rivers using Structure-from-Motion photogrammetry, Geomorphology, 213, 166-182, 2014.
49. Kaser, G., Cogley, J. G., Dyurgerov, B., Meier, M. F., and Ohmura, A. :Mass balance of glaciers and ice caps: Consensus estimates for 1961-2004, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, 1-5, 2006.
50. Kershaw, J. A., Clague, J. J., and Evans, S. G. :Geomorphic and sedimentological signature of a two-phase outburst flood from moraine-dammed Queen Bess Lake, British Columbia, Canada, Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 30, 1-25, 2005.
51. Kidson, R. L., Richards, K. S., and Carling, P. A. :Hydraulic model calibration for extreme floods in bedrock-confined channels: case study from northern Thailand, Hydrol. Process., 20, 329-344, 2006.
52. Klimeš, J., Benešová, M., Vilímek, V., Bouška, P., and Rapre, A. C. :The reconstruction of a glacial lake outburst flood using HECRAS and its significance for future hazard assessments: an example from Lake 513 in the Cordillera Blanca, Peru, Natural Hazards, 71, 1617-1638, 2014.
53. Kuczera, G. and Parent, E. :Monte Carlo assessment of parameter uncertainty in conceptual catchment models: the Metropolis algorithm, J. Hydrol., 211, 69-85, 1998.
54. Lamb, R., Beven, K., and Myrabo, S. :Use of spatially distributed water table observations to constrain uncertainty in a rainfallrunoff model, Adv. Water Resour., 22, 305-317, 1998.
55. Lebourg, T., Riss, J., and Pirard, E. :Influence of morphological characteristics of heterogeneous moraine formations on their mechanical behaviour using image and statistical analysis, Eng. Geol., 73, 37-50, 2004.
56. Liang, D., Falconer, R. A., and Lin, B. :Comparison between TVDMacCormack and ADI-type solvers of the shallow water equations, Adv. Water Resour., 29, 1833-1845, 2006.
57. Liang, D., Lin, B., and Falconer, R. A. :Simulation of rapidly varying flow using an efficient TVD-MacCormack scheme, Int. J. Numer. Meth. Fluids, 53, 811-826, 2007.
58. Liao, C. B., Wu, M. S., and Liang, S. J. :Numerical simulation of a dam break for an actual river terrain environment, Hydrol. Process., 21, 447-460, 2007.
59. Lliboutry, L., Morales, B., Pautre, A., and Schneider, B. :Glaciological problems set by the control of dangerous lakes in Cordillera Blanca, Peru, I: Historical failure of morainic dams, their causes and prevention, J. Glaciol., 18, 239-254, 1977.
60. Lowe, D. G. :Distinctive image features from scale-invariant keypoints, Int. J. Comput. Vis., 60, 91-110, 2004.
61. MathWorks®: MATLAB (version 7.6), available at: http://www. mathworks.co.uk (last access: 15 December 2012), 2012.
62. McMillan, H. K. and Brasington, J. :Reduced complexity strategies for modelling urban floodplain inundation, Geomorphology, 90, 226-243, 2007.
63. McMillan, H. K. and Brasington, J. :End-to-end flood risk assessment: A coupled model cascade with uncertainty estimation, Water Resour. Res., 44, W03419, doi:10.1029/2007WR005995, 2008.
64. Merz, B. and Thieken, A. :Flood risk analysis: Concepts and challenge, Oester. Wasser Abfallwirt., 56, 27-34, 2004.
65. Meselhe, E. A. and Holly Jr., F. M. :Invalidity of Preissmann scheme for transcritical flow, J. Hydraul. Eng., 123, 652-655, 1997.
66. Metropolis, N. :The beginning of the Monte Carlo method, Los Alamos Science, 15, 125-130, 1987.
67. Mohamed, M. A. A., Samuels, P. G., Morris, M., and Ghataora, G. S. :Improving the accuracy of prediction of breach formation through embankment dams and flood embankments, in: River Flow 2002, edited by: Bousmar, D. and Zech, Y., 1st International Conference on Fluvial Hydraulics, 3-6 September 2002, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium, 10 pp., 2002.
68. Mool, P. K., Bajracharya, S. R., and Joshi, S. P. :Inventory of glaciers, glacial lakes and glacial lake outburst floods, Nepal, International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Kathmandu, Nepal, 2001.
69. Morris, M., Hanson, G., and Hassan, M. A. A. :Improving the accuracy of breach modelling: why are we not progressing faster?, J. Flood Risk Manage., 1, 150-161, 2008.
70. Nicholas, A. P. and Quine, T. A. :Quantitative assessment of landform equifinality and palaeoenvironmental reconstruction using geomorphic models, Geomorphology, 121, 167-183, 2010.
71. Oerlemans, J. :Quantifying global warming from the retreat of glacier, Science, 264, 243-245, 1994.
72. Osti, R. and Egashira, S. :Hydrodynamic characteristics of the Tam Pokhari Glacial Lake outburst flood in the Mt. Everest region, Nepal, Hydrol. Process., 23, 2943-2955, 2009.
73. Osti, R., Bhattarai, T. N., and Miyake, K. :Causes of catastrophic failure of Tam Pokhari moraine dam in the Mt. Everest region, Nat. Hazards, 58, 1209-1223, 2011.
74. Pappenberger, F., Beven, K. J., Hunter, N. M., Bates, P. D., Gouweleeuw, B. T., Thielen, J., and de Roo, A. P. J. :Cascading model uncertainty from medium range weather forecasts (10 days) through a rainfall-runoff model to flood inundation predictions within the European Flood Forecasting System (EFFS), Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 9, 381-393, doi:10.5194/hess-9-381-2005, 2005.
75. Pappenberger, F., Matgen, P., Beven, K. J., Henry, J. B., Pfister, L., and de Fraipont, P. :Influence of uncertain boundary conditions and model structure on flood inundation predictions, Adv. Water Resour., 29, 1430-1449, 2006.
76. Parkin, G., O'Donnell, G., Ewen, J., Bathurst, J. C., O'Connell, P. E., and Lavabre, J. :Validation of catchment models for predicting land-use and climate change impacts: 2. Case study for a Mediterranean catchment, J. Hydrol., 175, 595-613, 1996.
77. Refsgaard, J. C. :Parameterisation, calibration and validation of distributed hydrological models, J. Hydrol., 198, 69-97, 1997.
78. Reynolds, J. M. :High-altitude glacial lake hazard assessment and mitigation: a Himalayan perspective, in: Geohazards in Engineering, edited by: Maund, J. G. and Eddleston, M., Engineering Geology Special Publications, Geological Society, London, 15, 25-34, 1998.
79. Reynolds, J. M. :On the formation of supraglacial lakes on debris-covered glaciers, in: Debris-Covered Glaciers, edited by: Nakawo, M., Raymond, C. F., and Fountain, A., Proceedings of the Seattle Workshop, September 2000, USA, IAHS Publ., 264, 153-161, 2000.
80. Reynolds, J. M. :Assessing glacial hazards for hydro development in the Himalayas, Hindu Kush and Karakoram, Hydropower Dams, 2, 60-65, 2014.
81. RGSL - Reynolds Geo-Sciences Ltd: Development of glacial hazard and risk minimisation protocols in rural environments: Guidelines for the management of glacial hazards and risks. Reynolds Geo-Sciences Ltd Report R7816.142, available at: http://www.reynolds-international.co.uk/dfid (last access: 14 February 2015), 2003.
82. Richardson, S. D. and Reynolds, J. M. :An overview of glacial hazards in the Himalayas, Quatern. Int., 65/66, 31-47, 2000.
83. Romanowicz, R. and Beven, K. :Dynamic real-time prediction of flood inundation probabilities, Hydrolog. Sci. J., 43, 181-196, 1998.
84. Rychkov, I., Brasington, J., and Vericat, D. :Computational and methodological aspects of terrestrial surface analysis based on point clouds, Comput. Geosci., 42, 64-70, 2012.
85. Sakai, A., Chikita, K., and Yamada, T. :Expansion of a morainedammed glacial lake, Tsho Rolpa, in Rolwaling Himal, Nepal Himalaya, Limnol. Oceanogr., 45, 1401-1408, 2000.
86. Sanders, B. F. :Evaluation of on-line DEMs for flood inundation modelling, Adv. Water Resour., 30, 1831-1843, 2007.
87. Snavely, N. :Scene Reconstruction and Visualization from Internet Photo Collections, unpublished PhD thesis, University of Washington, USA, 2008.
88. Snavely, N., Seitz, S. N., and Szeliski, R. :Modelling the world from internet photo collections, Int. J. Comput. Vis., 80, 189-210, 2008.
89. Somos-Valenzuela, M. A., McKinney, D. C., Rounce, D. R., and Byers, A. C. :Changes in Imja Tsho in the Mount Everest region of Nepal, The Cryosphere, 8, 1661-1671, doi:10.5194/tc-8- 1661-2014, 2014.
90. Stokes, C. R., Spagnolo, M., and Clark, C. D. :The composition and internal structure of drumlins: complexity, commonality, and implications for a unifying theory of their formation, Earth-Sci. Rev., 107, 398-422, 2011.
91. Thompson, S. S., Benn, D. I., Dennis, K., and Luckman, A. :A rapidly-growing moraine-dammed glacial lake on Ngozumpa Glacier, Nepal, Geomorphology, 145-146, 1-11, 2012.
92. Vasquez, R. F., Beven, K., and Feyen, J. :GLUE based assessment on the overall predictions of a MIKE SHE application, Water Resour. Manage., 23, 1325-1349, 2009.
93. Venutelli, M. :Stability and accuracy of weighted four-point implicit finite difference schemes for open channel flow, J. Hydraul. Eng., 128, 281-288, 2002.
94. von Bertalanffy, L. :General System Theory - Foundations, Development, Applications, 2nd Edn., George Braziller, New York, 295 pp., 1968.
95. Vorogushyn, S., Merz, B., Lindenschmidt, K. E., and Apel, H. :A new methodology for flood hazard assessment considering dike breaches, Water Resour. Res., 46, W08541, doi:10.1029/2009WR008475, 2010.
96. Vorogushyn, S., Apel, H., and Merz, B. :The impact of the uncertainty of dike breach development time on flood hazard, Phys. Chem. Earth, 36, 319-323, 2011.
97. Vrugt, J. A., ter Braak, C. J. F., Gupta, H. V., and Robinson, B. A. :Equifinality of formal (DREAM) and informal (GLUE) Bayesian approaches in hydrologic modelling?, Stoch. Environ. Res. Risk A., 23, 1011-1026, 2009.
98. Vuichard, D. and Zimmerman, M. :The Langmoche flash-flood, Khumbu Himal, Nepal, Mount. Res. Develop., 6, 90-94, 1986.
99. Vuichard, D. and Zimmerman, M. :The 1985 catastrophic drainage of a moraine-dammed lake, Khumbu Himal, Nepal: Cause and consequences, Mount. Res. Develop., 7, 91-110, 1987.
100. Walder, J. S. and O'Connor, J. E. :Methods for predicting peak discharge of flood caused by failure of natural and constructed earth dams, Water Resour. Res., 33, 2337-2348, 1997.
101. Wang, W., Yang, X., and Yao, T. :Evaluation of ASTER GDEM and SRTM and their suitability in hydraulic modelling of a glacial lake outburst flood in southeast Tibet, Hydrol. Process., 26, 213- 225, 2012.
102. Watanabe, T. and Rothacher, D. :The 1994 Lugge Tsho Glacial Lake Outburst Flood, Bhutan Himalaya, Mount. Res. Develop., 16, 77-81, 1996.
103. Watanabe, T., Kameyama, S., and Sato, T. :Imja Glacier deadice melt rates and changes in a supraglacial lake, 1989-1994, Khumbu Himal, Nepal: danger of lake drainage, Mount. Res. Develop., 15, 293-300, 1995.
104. Westerberg, I. K., Guerrero, J.-L., Younger, P. M., Beven, K. J., Seibert, J., Halldin, S., Freer, J. E., and Xu, C.-Y. :Calibration of hydrological models using flow-duration curves, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 15, 2205-2227, doi:10.5194/hess-15-2205- 2011, 2011.
105. Westoby, M. J. :The development of a unified framework for lowcost Glacial Lake Outburst Flood hazard assessment, Unpublished PhD thesis, Department of Geography, History and Politics, Aberystwyth University, Aberystwyth, 456 pp., 2013.
106. Westoby, M. J., Brasington, J., Glasser, N. F., Hambrey, M. J., and Reynolds, J. M. :'Structure-from-Motion' photogrammetry: A low-cost, effective tool for geoscience applications, Geomorphology, 179, 300-314, 2012.
107. Westoby, M. J., Glasser, N. F., Brasington, J., Hambrey, M. J., Quincey, D. J., and Reynolds, J. M. :Modelling outburst floods from moraine-dammed glacial lakes, Earth-Sci. Rev., 134, 137- 159, doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2014.03.009, 2014a.
108. Westoby, M. J., Glasser, N. F., Hambrey, M. J., Brasington, J., and Mohamed, M. A. A. M. :Reconstructing historic Glacial Lake Outburst Floods through numerical modelling and geomorphological assessment: Extreme events in the Himalaya, Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 39, 1675-1692
109. Wohl, E. E. :Uncertainty in flood estimates associated with roughness coefficient, J. Hydraul. Eng., 124, 219-223, 1998.
110. Worni, R., Stoffel, M., Huggel, C., Volz, C., Casteller, A., and Luckman, B. :Analysis and dynamic modelling of a moraine failure and glacier lake outburst flood at Ventisquero Negro, Patagonian Andes (Argentina), J. Hydrol., 444-445, 134-145, 2012.
111. Worni, R., Huggel, C., and Stoffel, M. :Glacial lakes in the Indian Himalayas - From an area-wide glacial lake inventory to on-site and modeling based risk assessment of critical glacial lakes, Sci. Total Environ., 468-469, S71-S84, 2013.
112. Worni, R., Huggel, C., Clague, J. J., Schaub, Y., and Stoffel, M. :Coupling glacial lake impact, dam breach, and flood processes: A modeling perspective, Geomorphology, 224, 161-176, 2014.
113. Xin, W., Shlyln, L., Wanqin, G., and Junll , X. :Assessment and simulation of Glacier Lake Outburst Floods for Longbasaba and Pida Lakes, China, Mount. Res. Develop., 28, 310-317, 2008.
114. Zemp, M., Hoelzle, M., and Haeberli, W. :Six decades of glacier mass balance observations - a review of the worldwide monitoring network, Ann. Glaciol., 50, 101-111, 2009.
115. Zhong, D., Sun, Y., and Li, M. :Dam break threshold value and risk probability assessment for an earth dam, Nat. Hazards, 59, 129- 147, 2011.