Mangrove response to environmental changes predicted under varying climates: Case studies from Australia

Current Forestry Reports

Volumn 1, Issue 3, 2015, Pages 178-194

  Asbridge, Emma ^a   Lucas, Richard ^a   Accad, Arnon ^b   Dowling, Ralph ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES   (Australia)

^b QUEENSLAND HERBARIUM   (Australia)

Author keywords

Climate change; Estuary; Mangrove; Monitoring; Remote sensing; Sea level rise

Indexed keywords

EID: 85006188913     PISSN: None     EISSN: 21986436     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s40725-015-0018-4     Document Type: Article

References (163)

1. Gilman EL, Ellison J, Duke NC, Field C. Threats to mangroves from climate change and adaptation options: a review. Aquat Bot. 2008;89(2):237–50. The authors review mangrove vulnerability to a range of climate change factors, particularly focusing upon the impact of sea level rise and associated adaptations.
2. IPCC. Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental panel on Climate Change Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. 2013.
3. Spalding M, Blasco F, Field C. World mangrove atlas. Okinawa: International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems; 1997.
4. Valiela I, Bowen JL, York JK. Mangrove forests: one of the world’s threatened major tropical environments. Bioscience. 2001;51:807–85.
5. Eslami-Andargoli L, Dale P, Sipe N, Chaseling J. Mangrove expansion and rainfall patterns in Moreton Bay, Southeast Queensland, Australia. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci. 2009;85:292–8.
6. Woodroffe CD. Response of tide-dominated mangrove shorelines in Northern Australia to anticipated sea-level rise. Earth Surf Process Landf. 1995;20(1):65–85. doi:10.1002/esp.3290200107.
7. Alongi DM. Present state and future of the world’s mangrove forests. Environ Conserv. 2002;29(3):331–49.
8. McKee KL, Cahoon DR, Feller IC. Caribbean mangroves adjust to rising sea level through biotic controls on change in soil elevation. Glob Ecol Biogeogr. 2007;16(5):545–56.
9. Rogers K, Wilton KM, Saintilan N. Vegetation change and surface elevation dynamics in estuarine wetlands of southeast Australia. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci. 2006;66:559-69. The paper demonstrates the significant relationship between vertical accretion and tidal regimes, thus providing evidence that landward mangrove encroachment is influenced by inundation frequency in the saltmarsh.
10. Saintilan N, Wilson NC, Rogers K, Rajkaran A, Krauss KW. Mangrove expansion and salt marsh decline at mangrove poleward limits. Glob Chang Biol. 2014;20(1):147–57.
11. Semeniuk V. Predicted response of coastal wetlands to climate changes: a Western Australian model. Hydrobiologia. 2013;708: 23–43.
12. Alongi DM. Mangrove forests: resilience, protection from tsunamis, and responses to global climate change. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci. 2008;76(1):1–13.
13. Di Nitto D, Erftemeijer P, van Beek J, Dahdouh-Guebas F, Higazi L, Quisthoudt K, et al. Modelling drivers of mangrove propagule dispersal and restoration of abandoned shrimp farms. Biogeosci Discuss. 2013;10(1):5095–113.
14. Lugo AE. Effects and outcomes of Caribbean Hurricanes in a climate change scenario. Sci Total Environ. 2000;262:243–51.
15. Paling EI, Kobryn HT, Humphreys G. Assessing the extent of mangrove change caused by Cyclone Vance in the eastern Exmouth Gulf, northwestern Australia. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci. 2008;77(4):603–13. doi:10.1016/j.ecss.2007.10.019.
16. Ellison AM, Farnsworth EJ. Simulated sea level change alters anatomy, physiology, growth, and reproduction of red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle L.). Oecologia. 1997;112(4):435–46.
17. Ellison AM. Mangrove restoration: do we know enough? Restor Ecol. 2000;8(3):219–29.
18. Mckee KL, Rooth JE. Where temperate meets tropical: multi‐factorial effects of elevated CO2, nitrogen enrichment, and competition on a mangrove‐salt marsh community. Glob Chang Biol. 2008;14(5):971–84.
19. Dahdouh-Guebas F, Satyanarayana B, editors. Proceedings of the International Conference ‘Meeting on Mangrove ecology, functioning and Management - MMM3’2012 2–6 July 2012; Galle, Sri Lanka: VLIZ Special Publication.
20. Rogers K, Saintilan N, Woodroffe CD. Surface elevation change and vegetation distribution dynamics in a subtropical coastal wetland: implications for coastal wetland response to climate change. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci. 2014;149:46-56. The paper investigates the individual and combined effects of hydrological (e.g., tidal, sea level rise) and climatic (e.g., rainfall) variations on sediment elevation and community distribution i.e. potential for landward expansion.
21. Solomon S, Qin D, Manning M, Alley RB, Berntsen T, Bindoff NL, Chen Z, Chidthaisong A, Gregory JM, Hegerl GC, Heimann M, Hewitson B, Hoskins BJ, Joos F, Jouzel J, Kattsov V, Lohmann U, Matsuno T, Molina M, Nicholls N, Overpeck J, Raga G, Ramaswamy V, Ren J, Rusticucci M, Somerville R, Stocker TF, Whetton P, Wood RA, Wratt D. Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of the Working Group I to the Fourth Assesment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. 2007.
22. Jones P, Hulme M. Calculating regional climatic time series for temperature and precipitation: methods and illustrations. Int J Climatol. 1996;16(4):361–77.
23. Houghton JT, Ding Y, Griggs DJ, Noguer M, van der Linden PJ, Dai X, Maskell K, Johnson C. Climate change 2001: the scientific basis. 2001.
24. Houghton JT, Ding Y, Griggs DJ, Noguer M, van der Linden PJ, Dai X, et al. Climate change 2001: the scientific basis. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge university press Cambridge; 2001.
25. Hoyos CD, Agudelo PA, Webster PJ, Curry JA. De-convolution of the factors contributing to the increase in global hurricane intensity. Science. 2006;312:94–7.
26. IPCC. Technical Summary. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge. 2007.
27. Curry JA,Webster PJ, Holland GJ. Mixing politics and science in testing the hypothesis that greenhouse warming is causing a global increase in hurricane intensity. Am Meteorol Soc. 2006;87:25–37.
28. Abbs D. The impact of climate change on the climatology of tropical cyclones in the Australian region: CSIRO Climate Adaptation Flagship Working paper. 2012.
29. Miller L, Douglas BC. Mass and volume contributions to twentieth-century global sea level rise. Nature. 2004;428(6981): 406–9.
30. NRC. Advancing the science of climate change.Washington: The National Academies Press; 2010.
31. Moss RH, Babiker M, Brinkman S, Calvo E, Carter T, Edmonds JA, Elgizouli I, Emori S, Lin E, Hibbard K. Towards new scenarios for analysis of emissions, climate change, impacts, and response strategies: Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL), Richland, WA (US). 2008.
32. Jubb I, Canadell P, Dix M. Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs): Department of the Environment and CSIRO. 2013.
33. Meehl GA, Hu A, Tebaldi C, Arblaster JM, Washington WM, Teng H, et al. Relative outcomes of climate change mitigation related to global temperature versus sea-level rise. Nat Clim Chang. 2012;2(8):576–80. http://www.nature.com/nclimate/journal/v2/n8/abs/nclimate1529.html#supplementaryinformation.
34. Schaeffer-Novelli Y, Cintron-Molero G, Soares MLG. Chapter Nine Mangroves as indicators of sea level change in the muddy coasts of the world. In: Terry Healy YW, Judy-Ann H, editors. Proceedings in Marine Science. Elsevier; 2002. p. 245–62.
35. Khan MA, Aziz I. Salinity tolerance in some mangrove species from Pakistan. Wetl Ecol Manag. 2001;9:219–23.
36. Krauss KW, Cahoon DR, Allen JA, Ewel KC, Lynch JC, Cormier N. Surface elevation change and susceptibility of different mangrove zones to sea-level rise on Pacific high island of Micronesia. Ecosystems. 2010;13:129–43.
37. 2 efflux from cleared mangrove peat. PLoS One. 2011;6(6):e21279.
38. McKee KL. Biophysical controls on accretion and elevation change in Caribbean mangrove ecosystems. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci. 2011;91(4):475–83.
39. Gilman E, Van Lavieren H, Ellison J, Jungblut V, Wilson L, Areki F, et al. Pacific Island mangroves in a changing climate and rising sea. Nairobi: United Nations Environment Programme; 2006.
40. Thom BG. Mangrove ecology and deltaic geomorphology: Tabasco, Mexico. J Ecol. 1967;55:301–43.
41. Ellison JC. Mangrove retreat with rising sea-level, Bermuda. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci. 1993;37(1):75–87.
42. Sanders CJ, Smoak JM, Naidu AS, Araripe DR, Sanders LM, Patchineelam SR. Mangrove forest sedimentation and its reference to sea level rise, Cananeia. Brazil Environ Earth Sci. 2010;60(6):1291–301.
43. Lovelock CE, Sorrell BK, Hancock N, Hua Q, Swales A. Mangrove forest and soil development on a rapidly accreting shore in New Zealand. Ecosystems. 2010;13:437–51.
44. Parkinson RW, DeLaune RD, White JR. Holocene sea-level rise and the fate of mangrove forests within the wider Caribbean region. J Coast Res. 1994;10:1077–86.
45. Mitra A. Sensitivity of Mangrove Ecosystem to Changing Climate. Springer (India) Private Limited; 2013.
46. Krauss KW, Lovelock CE, McKee KL, López-Hoffman L, Ewe SM, Sousa WP. Environmental drivers in mangrove establishment and early development: a review. Aquat Bot. 2008;89(2):105–27.
47. Ross M, Meeder J, Sah J, Ruiz P, Telesnicki G. The southeast saline Everglades revisited: 50 years of coastal vegetation change. J Veg Sci. 2000;11(1):101–12.
48. López‐Medellín X, Ezcurra E, González‐Abraham C, Hak J, Santiago LS, Sickman JO. Oceanographic anomalies and sea‐level rise drive mangroves inland in the Pacific coast of Mexico. J Veg Sci. 2011;22(1):143–51.
49. Krauss KW, McKee KL, Hester MW. Water use characteristics of black mangrove (Avicennia germinans) communities along an ecotone with marsh at a northern geographical limit. Ecohydrology. 2014;7(2):354–65. doi:10.1002/eco.1353.
50. Cheong S-M, Silliman B, Wong PP, vanWesenbeeck B, Kim C-K, Guannel G. Coastal adaptation with ecological engineering. Nat Clim Chang. 2013;3(9):787–91.
51. McKee KL, Feller IC, Popp M, Wanek W. Mangrove isotopic fractionation (δ15N and δ13C) across a nitrogen versus phosphorus limitation gradient. Ecology. 2002;83:1065–75.
52. Hashimoto TR, Saintilan N, Haberle SG. Mid‐Holocene development of mangrove communities featuring rhizophoraceae and geomorphic change in the Richmond River Estuary, New South Wales, Australia. Geogr Res. 2006;44(1):63–76.
53. Gilman E, Ellison J, Coleman R, editors. Recent Historical Reconstruction of Mangrove Position and Assessment of Mangrove Responses to Projected Relative Sea-level Rise. The Society of Wetland Scientists 27th International Conference-Proceedings of the Symposium on Mangrove Responses to Relative Sea-Level Rise and Other Climate Change Effects; 2006 9–14 July 2006; Cairns Convention Centre, Cairns, Australia: Catchments to Coast.
54. Krauss K, Allen J, Cahoon D. Differential rates of vertical accretion and elevation change among aerial root types in Micronesian mangrove forests. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci. 2003;56(2):251–9. The paper investigated the impact of mangrove root structures on sediment dynamics i.e. sediment trapping, vertical accretion and elevation change.
55. Ning ZH, Turner RE, Doyle T, Abdollahi KK. Integrated Assessment of the Climate Change Impacts on the Gulf Coast Region: Gulf Coast Climate Change Assessment Council (GCRCC) and Louisiana State University (LSU) 2003.
56. Parida AK, Jha B. Salt tolerance mechanisms in mangroves: a review. Trees. 2010;24(2):199–217.
57. Vicente VP. Ecological effects of sea level rise and sea surface temperature on mangroves, coral reefs, seagrass beds and sandy beaches of Puerto Rico: a preliminary evaluation. Science-Ciencia. 1989;16:27–39.
58. Ellison JC, Stoddart DR. Mangrove ecosystem collapse during predicted sea-level rise: Holocene analogues and implications. J Coast Res. 1991;7:151–65.
59. Snedaker S. Mangroves and climate change in the Florida and Caribbean region: scenarios and hypotheses. Hydrobiologia. 1995;295:43–9. The paper summarises the potential effects of climate change on mangrove communties, with particular focus on sea level rise and associated landward encroachment. However, other factors and potenial scenarios are discussed including the impacts of changes in precipitation, runoff, temperature, storm frequency and UVb.
60. Yáñez-Espinosa L, Flores J. A review of sea-level rise effect on mangrove forest species: anatomical and morphological modifications global warming impacts-case studies on the economy, human health, and on urban and natural environments. InTech; 2011.
61. Ellison JC, Fiu M. Vulnerability of Fiji’s mangroves and associated coral reefs to climate change: World Wildlife Fund. 2010.
62. Field CD. Impacts of expected climate change on mangroves. Hydrobiologia. 1995;295:75–81. The paper summarises the impact of climate change on mangroves and acts as an excellent baseline review. It is suggested that sediment availability and sea level rise may control future managrove distibution. The impact of increased air temperatures is thought to be minimal, although the possibility of latitudinal expansion is stated.
63. Ellison J. Chapter 15: how South Pacific mangroves may respond to predicted climate change and sea level rise. Climate Change in the South Pacific: impacts and responses in Australia, New Zealand, and Small Islands States. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic; 2000.
64. Tomlinson PB. The botany of mangroves. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1986.
65. Duke NC, Ball M, Ellison J. Factors influencing biodiversity and distributional gradients in mangroves. Glob Ecol Biogeogr Lett. 1998;7(1):27–47.
66. Marine Environment Report for Australia. State of the Marine Environment Report for Australia: Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. 2000.
67. Ward IAK, Larcombe P. A geochemical comparison of modern and holocene mangrove sediments, Townsville region, North Queensland. Wetlands. 1996;15:10–21.
68. Saintilan N, Williams RJ. Mangrove transgression into saltmarsh environments in south-east Australia. Glob Ecol Biogeogr. 1999;8:117–24. The authors explain the widespread trend of mangrove expansion into the saltmarsh, in south-east Australia, with reference to rainfall, land clearance, tidal regime, sediment dynamics and nutrient concentration.
69. Rogers K, Saintilan N, Heijnis H. Mangrove encroachment of salt marsh in Western Port Bay, Victoria: the role of sedimentation, subsidence, and sea level rise. Estuaries. 2005;28(4):551–9. doi: 10.1007/BF02696066.
70. Clarke LD, Hannon NJ. The Mangrove Swamp and Salt Marsh Communities of the Sydney District: I. Vegetation, soils and climate. J Ecol. 1967;55(3):753–71. doi:10.2307/2258423.
71. Bucher D, Saenger P. A classification of tropical and subtropical Australian estuaries. Aquat Conserv Mar Freshwat Ecosyst. 1994;4(1):1–19.
72. Delgado P, Hensel P, Jiménez J, Day J. The importance of propagule establishment and physical factors in mangrove distributional patterns in a Costa Rican estuary. Aquat Bot. 2001;71(3):157–78.
73. Ebert SP. The geomorphological response to sediment discharge from the Herbert River, north Queensland: James Cook University of North Queensland; 1995.
74. Buckney RT. Three decades of habitat change: Kooragang Island, New South Wales. Conservation, the role of remnants of native vegetation Sydney. Australia: Beatty; 1987.
75. Hong PN. Mangroves of Vietnam. Mangrove ecology. IUCN; 1993.
76. Naidoo G, Tuffers AV, von Willert DJ. Changes in gas exchange and chlorophyll fluorescence characteristics of two mangroves and a mangrove associate in response to salinity in the natural environment. Trees. 2002;16(2–3):140–6.
77. Mehta PA, Sivaprakash K, Parani M, Venkataraman G, Parida AK. Generation and analysis of expressed sequence tags from the salt-tolerant mangrove species Avicennia marina (Forsk) Vierh. Theor Appl Genet. 2005;110(3):416–24.
78. Takemura T, Hanagata N, Sugihara K, Baba S, Karube I, Dubinsky Z. Physiological and biochemical responses to salt stress in the mangrove, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza. Aquat Bot. 2000;68(1):15–28. doi:10.1016/S0304-3770(00)00106-6.
79. Parida AK, Das A, Mittra B. Effects of salt on growth, ion accumulation, photosynthesis and leaf anatomy of the mangrove, Bruguiera parviflora. Trees. 2004;18(2):167–74.
80. Ye Y, Tam NF-Y, Lu C-Y, Wong Y-S. Effects of salinity on germination, seedling growth and physiology of three salt-secreting mangrove species. Aquat Bot. 2005;83(3):193–205.
81. Ball MC. Interactive effects of salinity and irradiance on growth: implications for mangrove forest structure along salinity gradients. Trees. 2002;16(2–3):126–39.
82. Ellison JC. Impacts of sediment burial on mangroves. Mar Pollut Bull. 1999;37(8):420–6. The paper summarises the negative impacts of excessive sediment burial i.e. smothering, and states the importance of aerial roots as an adaptation for survival in anaerobic conditions.
83. Allingham D, Neil D. The supratidal deposits and effects of coral dredging on Mud Island, Moreton Bay, southeast Queensland. Oceanogr Lit Rev. 1996;43(4):411.
84. Lee S, Tan W, Havanond S. Regeneration and colonisation of mangrove on clay-filled reclaimed land in Singapore. Hydrobiologia. 1996;319(1):23–35.
85. Gill A, Tomlinson PB. Studies on the growth of red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle L.) 4. The adult root system. Biotropica. 1977;9:145–55.
86. Hutchings P, Saenger P. Ecology of mangroves. Brisbane: University of Queensland Press; 1987.
87. Rogers K, Saintilan N, Cahoon DR. Surface elevation dynamics in a regenerating mangrove forest at Homebush Bay, Australia.Wetl Ecol Manage. 2005;13:587–98.
88. Whelan KRT, Smith III TJ, Cahoon DR, Lynch JC, Gordon HA. Groundwater control of mangrove surface elevation: shrink and swell varies with soil depth. Estuaries. 2005;28(6):833–43. doi:10.2307/3526950.
89. Rogers K, Saintilan N, Howe AJ, Rodríguez JF. Sedimentation, elevation and marsh evolution in a southeastern Australian estuary during changing climatic conditions. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci. 2013;133:172–81. doi:10.1016/j.ecss.2013.08.025.
90. Pezeshki S, DeLaune R, Patrick Jr W. Differential response of selected mangroves to soil flooding and salinity: gas exchange and biomass partitioning. Can J For Res. 1990;20(7):869–74.
91. Krauss KW, Doyle TW, Twilley RR, Rivera-Monroy VH, Sullivan JK. Evaluating the relative contributions of hydroperiod and soil fertility on growth of south Florida mangroves. Hydrobiologia. 2006;569(1):311–24.
92. Naidoo G. Effects of flooding on leaf water potential and stomatal resistance in Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L.) Lam. New Phytol. 1983;93:369–76.
93. Naidoo G, Hiralal O, Naidoo Y. Hypersalinity effects on leaf ultrastructure and physiology in the mangrove Avicennia marina. Flora-Morphol Distrib Funct Ecol Plants. 2011;206(9):814–20. doi:10.1016/j.flora.2011.04.009.
94. Sobrado M, Ball M. Light use in relation to carbon gain in the mangrove, Avicennia marina, under hypersaline conditions. Funct Plant Biol. 1999;26(3):245–51.
95. Arreola-Lizárraga JA, Flores-Verdugo FJ, Ortega-Rubio A. Structure and litterfall of an arid mangrove stand on the Gulf of California, Mexico. Aquat Bot. 2004;79(2):137–43.
96. Macnae W. A general account of the fauna and flora of mangrove swamps and forests in the Indo-West Pacific region. Adv Mar Biol. 1968;6:73–270.
97. Jiménez JA. The structure and function of dry weather mangroves on the Pacific Coast of Central America, with emphasis on Avicennia bicolor forests. Estuaries. 1990;13(2):182–92.
98. Elster C. Beziehung zwischen ökologischen Faktoren und der Regeneration dreier Mangrovenarten im Gebiet der Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta Kolumbien. Giessen. 1997.
99. Elster C, Perdomo L, Schnetter M-L. Impact of ecological factors on the regeneration of mangroves in the Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta, Colombia. Hydrobiologia. 1999;413:35–46.
100. Cahoon DR, Hensel P. HurricaneMitch: a regional perspective on mangrove damage, recovery and sustainability: USGS Open File Report - 03–1832002. The report focuses upon the direct and indirect impacts of hurricane activity, particularly in Central America, and evaluates the potential for recovery and sustainability.
101. Breen CM, Hill BJ. A mass mortality of mangroves in the Kosi Estuary. Trans Royal Soc South Africa. 1969;38(3):285–303. doi: 10.1080/00359196909519092.
102. Steinke TD, Ward CJ. Some effects of the cyclones Domoina and Imboa on mangrove communities in the St. Lucia estuary, South Africa. S Afr J Bot. 1989;55:340–8.
103. Cahoon DR. A review of major storm impacts on coastal wetland elevations. Estuar Coasts. 2006;29(6):889–98.
104. Cahoon DR, Hensel P, Rybczyk J, McKee KL, Proffitt CE, Perez BC. Mass tree mortality leads to mangrove peat collapse at Bay Islands, Honduras after Hurricane Mitch. J Ecol. 2003;91(6): 1093–105. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2745.2003.00841.x.
105. Macintyre I, Littler M, Littler D. Holocene history of Tobacco Range, Belize, Central America. Atoll Res Bull. 1995;430:1–18.
106. Hodkinson IE, Hughes MK. Insect herbivory. New York Chapman and Hall; 1982.
107. Tong Y, Lee SY, Morton B. Effects of artificial defoliation on growth, reproduction and leaf chemistry of the mangrove Kandelia candel. J Trop Ecol. 2003;19(4):397–406.
108. Bardsley KN. The effects of cyclone Kathy on mangrove vegetation. Darwin, Australia Australian National University—North Australia Research Unit. 1985.
109. Woodroffe CD, Grime D. Storm impact and evolution of a mangrove-fringed chenier plain, Shoal Bay, Darwin, Australia. Mar Geol. 1999;159(1–4):303–21. doi:10.1016/S0025-3227(99)00006-7.
110. Santini NS, Schmitz N, Bennion V, Lovelock CE. The anatomical basis of the link between density and mechanical strength in mangrove branches. Funct Plant Biol. 2013;40(4):400–8.
111. Hamilton LS, Snedaker SC. Handbook for Mangrove Area Management East–West Centre, Hawaii: Environment and Policy Institute 1984.
112. Snedaker SC, Brown MS, Lahmann EJ, Araujo RJ. Recovery of a mixed-species mangrove forest in south Florida following canopy removal. J Coast Res. 1992;8:919–25.
113. Wang W, You S, Wang Y, Huang L, Wang M. Influence of frost on nutrient resorption during leaf senescence in a mangrove at its latitudinal limit of distribution. Plant Soil. 2011;342(1–2):105–15.
114. Pernetta J. Mangrove forests, climate change and sea level rise: hydrological influences on community structure and survival, with examples from the Indo-West Pacific. IUCN; 1993.
115. Chapman VJ, editor. Mangrove biogeography. International Symposium on Biology and Management of Mangroves; 1975; Miami University of Florida Press.
116. Soares MLG, Estrada GCD, Fernandez V, Tognella MMP. Southern limit of the Western South Atlantic mangroves: assessment of the potential effects of global warming from a biogeographical perspective. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci. 2012;101:44–53.
117. Wilson NC, Saintilan N. Growth of the mangrove species Rhizophora stylosa Griff. at its southern latitudinal limit in eastern Australia. Aquat Bot. 2012;101:8–17.
118. Woodroffe CD, Grindrod J. Mangrove biogeography: the role of quaternary environmental and sea-level change. J Biogeogr. 1991;18:479–92.
119. Pickens CN, Hester MW. Temperature tolerance of early life history stages of black mangrove Avicennia germinans: implications for range expansion. Estuar Coasts. 2011;34:824–30.
120. Sherrod CL, Hockaday DL, McMillan C. Survival of red mangrove, Rhizophora mangle, on the Gulf ofMexico coast of Texas. Contrib Mar Sci. 1986;29:27–36.
121. Montague CL, Odum HT. The intertidal marshes of Florida’s Gulf Coast. Ecology and management of tidal marshes: A Model from the Gulf of Mexico Delroy Beach. Florida: St Lucie Press; 1997.
122. Lewis RR, III RG, Gilmore J, Crewz DW, Odum WE. Mangrove habitat and fishery resources of Florida. Florida Aquatic Habitat and Fishery Resources Kissimmee, Florida: American Fisheries Society. 1985.
123. Giri C, Ochieng E, Tieszen L, Zhu Z, Singh A, Loveland T, et al. Status and distribution of mangrove forests of the world using earth observation satellite data. Glob Ecol Biogeogr. 2011;20(1): 154–9.
124. Odum WE, McIvor CCSmith III TJ. The ecology of the mangroves of south Florida: a community profile: DTIC Document. 1982.
125. Stuart S, Choat B, Martin K, Holbrook N, Ball M. The role of freezing in setting the latitudinal limits of mangrove forests. New Phytol. 2007;173(3):576–83.
126. McMillan C. Environmental factors affecting seedling establishment of the black mangrove on the central Texas coast. Ecology. 1971;52(5):927–30.
127. Markley JL, McMillan C, Thompson Jr GA. Latitudinal differentiation in response to chilling temperatures among populations of three mangroves, Avicennia germinans, Laguncularia racemosa, and Rhizophora mangle, from the western tropical Atlantic and Pacific Panama. Can J Bot. 1982;60(12):2704–15.
128. KaoW-Y, Shih C-N, Tsai T-T. Sensitivity to chilling temperatures and distribution differ in the mangrove species Kandelia candel and Avicennia marina. Tree Physiol. 2004;24(7):859–64. The authors investigated the impacts of exposure to reduced temperatures, the results suggest that low temperatures are the principal controlling factor limiting the distribution of A. marina.
129. Kirui BK. Allometric relations for estimating above ground biomass of naturally growing mangroves, Avicennia marina Forsk (Vierh). and Rhizophora mucronata Lam. along the Kenya Coast. 2006.
130. Stevens PW, Fox SL, Montague CL. The interplay between mangroves and saltmarshes at the transition between temperate and subtropical climate in Florida. Wetl Ecol Manag. 2006;14(5): 435–44.
131. Jagtap TG, Nagle VL. Response and adaptability of mangrove habitats from the Indian subcontinent to changing climate. AMBIO: J Human Environ. 2007;36(4):328–34.
132. Nadia TDL, Morellato LPC, Machado IC. Reproductive phenology of a northeast Brazilian mangrove community: environmental and biotic constraints. Flora-Morphol Distrib Funct Ecol Plants. 2012;207(9):682–92. doi:10.1016/j.flora.2012.06.020.
133. Duke N. Phenological trends with latitude in the mangrove tree Avicennia marina. J Ecol. 1990;78:113–33.
134. Clarke PJ. Base-line studies of temperate mangrove growth and reproduction; demographic and litterfall measures of leafing and flowering. Aust J Bot. 1994;42(1):37–48.
135. Sharma S, Kamruzzaman M, Hoque A, Analuddin K, Hagihara A. Vegetative and reproductive phenology, and litterfall production of Rhizophora stylosa in Okinawa Island, Japan. Int J Enviorn. 2011;1:20–6.
136. Coupland GT, Paling EI, McGuinness KA. Vegetative and reproductive phenologies of four mangrove species from northern Australia. Aust J Bot. 2005;53(2):109–17.
137. Smith MH, Constantine IE, Park PM. Atmospheric loadings of marine aerosol during a He: Bridean cyclone. Q JL R Met Soc. 1989;115:383–95.
138. Saenger P. Morphological, anatomical and reproductive adaptations of Australian mangroves. 1982.
139. Clough BF. Primary productivity and growth of mangrove forests. Tropical mangrove ecosystems. Washington DC: American Geophysical Union; 1992.
140. Comeaux RS, Allison MA, Bianchi TS. Mangrove expansion in the Gulf of Mexico with climate change: implications for wetland health and resistance to rising sea levels. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci. 2012;96:81–95.
141. Bianchi TS, Allison MA, Zhao J, Li X, Comeaux RS, Feagin RA, et al. Historical reconstruction of mangrove expansion in the Gulf of Mexico: linking climate change with carbon sequestration in coastal wetlands. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci. 2013;119:7–16.
142. Perry C, Mendelssohn I. Ecosystem effects of expanding populations of Avicennia germinans in a Louisiana salt marsh. Wetlands. 2009;29:396–406.
143. Alleman LK, Hester MW. Refinement of the fundamental niche of black mangrove (Avicennia germinans) seedlings in Louisiana: applications for restoration. Wetl Ecol Manag. 2011;19:47–60.
144. McKee K, Mendelssohn IA, Materne MD. Acute salt marsh dieback in the Mississippi River deltaic plain: a drought induced phenomenon? Glob Ecol Biogeogr. 2004;13:65–73.
145. IPCC. Adaption and vulnerability. Summary for Policy Makers: IPCC. 2007.
146. McLoughlin L. Estuarine wetlands distribution along the Parramatta River, Sydney, 1788–1940: implications for planning and conservation. Cunninghamia. 2000;6(3):579–610.
147. McLoughlin L. Mangroves and grass swamps: changes in the shoreline vegetation of the Middle Lane Cove River, Sydney, 1780’s–1880’s. Wetlands (Australia). 2010;7(1):13–24.
148. Straw P, Saintilan N. Loss of shorebird habitat as a result of mangrove incursion due to sea-level rise and urbanization. Waterbirds around the world. 2006:717–20.
149. Wilson NC. The distribution, growth, reproduction, and population genetics of a mangrove species, Rhizophora stylosa Griff. near its southern limits in New South Wales. Sydney: Australian Catholic University; 2009.
150. Leslie L, Karoly D, Leplastrier M, Buckley B. Variability of tropical cyclones over the southwest Pacific Ocean using a highresolution climate model. Meteorog Atmos Phys. 2007;97(1–4): 171–80.
151. Walsh K, Nguyen K-C, McGregor J. Fine-resolution regional climate model simulations of the impact of climate change on tropical cyclones near Australia. Clim Dyn. 2004;22(1):47–56.
152. Hopley D, Smithers S. Queensland. Encyclopedia of World’s Coastal Landforms. Springer. 2010.
153. Baldwin A, Egnotovich M, Ford M, Platt W. Regeneration in fringe mangrove forests damaged by Hurricane Andrew. Plant Ecol. 2001;157(2):151–64.
154. Cahoon D, Hensel P, editors. High-resolution global assessment of mangrove responses to sea-level rise: a review. Proceedings of the symposium on mangrove responses to relative sea level rise and other climate change effects. 2006.
155. Kauffman JB, Cole T. Micronesian mangrove forest structure and tree responses to a severe typhoon. Wetlands. 2010;30(6):1077–84. doi:10.1007/s13157-010-0114-y.
156. Watterson I, Whetton P, Moise A, Timbal B, Power S, Arblaster J, McInnes K. Chapter 5—regional climate change projections Climate change in Australia technical report. CSIRO. 2007.
157. IPCC. Managing the risks of extreme events and disasters to advance climate change adaptation. Cambridge, UK. 2012.
158. Keeley MA. Human Impacts on Mangroves. Marvellous Mangroves Australia. Australia: Mangrove Action Project and the Burnett Mary Regional Group for Natural Resource Management Ltd. 2014.
159. Hossain S, Eyre BD, McKee LJ. Impacts of dredging on dry season suspended sediment concentration in the Brisbane River estuary, Queensland, Australia. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci. 2004;61(3):539–45.
160. Dowling RM. Report on the effects of the January 2011 flood on the Mangrove Communities along the Brisbane River:Department of Environment and Resource Management. 2012. The report details mangrove distribution along the Brisbane River and indicates the resulting damage following the 2011 flood event.
161. van den Honert RC, McAneney J. The 2011 Brisbane floods: causes, impacts and implications. Water. 2011;3:1149–73.
162. Church JA, White NJ, Hunter JR. Sea-level rise at tropical Pacific and Indian Ocean islands. Glob Planet Chang. 2006;53(3):155-68.
163. NTC. Annual Sea Level Data Summary Report, July 2007-June. 2008.