Women, Weather, and Woes: The Triangular Dynamics of Female-Headed Households, Economic Vulnerability, and Climate Variability in South Africa

World Development

Volumn 90, Issue , 2017, Pages 41-62

  Flatø, Martin ^a   Muttarak, Raya ^b   Pelser, André ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OSLO   (Norway)

^b International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis   (Austria)

^c UNIVERSITY OF THE FREE STATE   (South Africa)

Author keywords

climate variability; economic vulnerability; female headed household; poverty; South Africa

Indexed keywords

CLIMATE VARIATION; ECONOMICS; GENDER DISPARITY; HOUSEHOLD INCOME; POVERTY; RAINFALL; VULNERABILITY; WOMENS STATUS;

SOUTH AFRICA;

EID: 85006049044     PISSN: 0305750X     EISSN: 18735991     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2016.08.015     Document Type: Article

References (102)

1. Adoho, F., Wodon, Q., Do changes in weather patterns and the environment lead to migration?. Quentin Wodon, G.J., Liverani, A., Bougnoux, N., (eds.) Climate change and migration: Evidence from the Middle East and North Africa, 2014, The World Bank, Washington, DC, 145–162 URL: < http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/56935/>.
2. Anderson, T., Hsiao, C., Formulation and estimation of dynamic models using panel data. Journal of Econometrics 18 (1982), 47–82, 10.1016/0304-4076(82)90095-1.
3. Anyanwu, J., Poverty in nigeria: A gendered analysis. African Statistical Journal 11 (2010), 38–61 URL: < http://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Publications/Poverty>.
4. Arellano, M., Bond, S., Some tests of specification for panel data: Monte carlo evidence and an application to employment equations. The Review of Economic Studies 58 (1991), 277–297, 10.2307/2297968 < http://arxiv.org/abs/http://restud.oxfordjournals.org/content/58/2/277.full.pdf+htmlarXiv:http://restud.oxfordjournals.org/content/58/2/277.full.pdf+html>.
5. Berg, E., Are poor people credit-constrained or myopic? Evidence from a south african panel. Journal of Development Economics 101 (2013), 195–205, 10.1016/j.jdeveco.2012.10.002.
6. Bhorat, H., Van Der Westhuizen, C., Poverty, inequality and the nature of economic growth in South Africa: Working Paper 12/151. 2012, Development Policy Research Unit, University of Cape Town, Cape Town URL: < http://www.polity.org.za/article/poverty-inequality-and-the-nature-of-economic-growth-in-south-africa-march-2013-2013-03-07>.
7. Bigombe, B., Khadiagala, G., Major trends affecting families in sub-Saharan Africa. UNDESA, (eds.) Families in the Process of Development, 2004, UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA), New York, 155–193.
8. Blundell, R., Bond, S., Initial conditions and moment restrictions in dynamic panel data models. Journal of Econometrics 87 (1998), 115–143, 10.1016/S0304-4076(98)00009-8.
9. Buchel, F., Engelhardt, H., Missing the partner and his earnings: Income situation and labour market participation of single mothers in west and east germany. Garcia, B., Anker, R., Pinnelli, A., (eds.) Women in the labour market in changing economies: Demographic issues, 2003, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 87–103.
10. Burke, M., Gong, E., Jones, K., Income shocks and hiv in africa. The Economic Journal 125 (2014), 1157–1189, 10.1111/ecoj.12149.
11. Buvinic, M., Gupta, G.R., Targeting poor woman-headed households and woman-maintained families in developing countries: Views on a policy dilemma: Research paper. 1994, International Center for Research on Women, Washington, DC URL: < http://www.atria.nl/epublications/1994/Targetingpoorwomanheadedhouseholdsandwomanmaintainedfamiliesindevelopingcountries.pdf>.
12. Buvinic, M., Gupta, G.R., Female-headed households and female-maintained families: Are they worth targeting to reduce poverty in developing countries?. Economic Development and Cultural Change 45 (1997), 259–280 URL: < http://www.jstor.org/stable/1154535>.
13. Casale, D., Posel, D., The continued feminisation of the labour force in South Africa. South African Journal of Economics 70 (2002), 156–184, 10.1111/j.1813-6982.2002.tb00042.x.
14. Chant, S., Women-headed households: Poorest of the poor? Perspectives from Mexico, Costa Rica and the Philippines. IDS Bulletin 28 (1997), 26–48, 10.1111/j.1759-5436.1997.mp28003003.x.
15. Chant, S., Dangerous equations? How female-headed households became the poorest of the poor: Causes, consequences and cautions. IDS Bulletin 35 (2004), 19–26, 10.1111/j.1759-5436.2004.tb00151.x.
16. Chant, S., Gender, generation and poverty: Exploring the feminisation of poverty in Africa, Asia and Latin America. 2007, Edward Elgar Publishing, Cheltenham and Northampton.
17. Chudgar, A., Female headship and schooling outcomes in rural India. World Development 39 (2011), 550–560, 10.1016/j.worlddev.2010.08.021.
18. Cross, C., Kok, P., O'Donovan, M., Mafukidze, J., Wentzel, M., Understanding the city's demographic future: Towards modelling the evidence on population and household growth: Report to the City of Johannesburg. 2005, Human Sciences Research Council, Pretoria URL: < www.hsrc.ac.za/en/research-outputs/ktree-doc/10985>.
19. Curran, E., Bonthuys, E., Customary law and domestic violence in rural South African communities: Notes and comments. South African Journal on Human Rights 21 (2005), 607–635 URL: < http://hdl.handle.net/10520/EJC53192>.
20. David, E., Enarson, E.P., The women of Katrina: How gender, race, and class matter in an American disaster. 2012, Vanderbilt University Press, Nashville.
21. De La Rocha, M., Resources of Poverty: Women and Survival in a Mexican City. 1994, Blackwell Publishing, Oxford and Cambridge.
22. Dee, D.P., Uppala, S.M., Simmons, A.J., Berrisford, P., Poli, P., Kobayashi, S., et al. The era-interim reanalysis: Configuration and performance of the data assimilation system. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 137 (2011), 553–597, 10.1002/qj.828.
23. Department of Environmental Affairs, Long-Term Adaptation Scenarios Flagship Research Programme (LTAS) for South Africa: Climate trends and scenarios for South Africa: Governmental report. 2013, Department of Environmental Affairs, Pretoria URL: < https://www.environment.gov.za/sites/default/files/docs/summarypolicymakersbookV3.pdf>.
24. Department of Social Development, Population policy for South Africa: Policy Document. 1998, Department of Social Development, Pretoria.
25. Djurfeldt, A.A., Djurfeldt, G., Lodin, J.B., Geography of gender gaps: Regional patterns of income and farm-nonfarm interaction among male- and female-headed households in eight African countries. World Development 48 (2013), 32–47, 10.1016/j.worlddev.2013.03.011.
26. Dungumaro, E.W., Gender differentials in household structure and socioeconomic characteristics in South Africa. Journal of Comparative Family Studies 39 (2008), 429–451 URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41604239.
27. Fafchamps, M., Quisumbing, A.R., Household formation and marriage markets in rural areas. Schultz, T.P., Strauss, J.A., (eds.) Handbook of Development Economics, Vol. 4, 2007, North-Holland, Amsterdam, 3187–3247, 10.1016/S1573-4471(07)04051-X.
28. Fauchereau, N., Trzaska, S., Rouault, M., Richard, Y., Rainfall variability and changes in Southern Africa during the 20th century in the global warming context. Natural Hazards 29 (2003), 139–154, 10.1023/A:1023630924100.
29. Fisher, S., Violence against women and natural disasters: Findings from post-tsunami Sri Lanka. Violence Against Women 16 (2010), 902–918, 10.1177/1077801210377649.
30. Flatø, M., Kotsadam, A., Droughts and gender bias in infant mortality in Sub-Saharan Africa: Memorandum 02/2014. 2014, University of Oslo URL: < https://ideas.repec.org/p/hhs/osloec/2014002.html>.
31. Food and Agriculture Organization, The Global Administrative Unit Layers 2014 revision. Dataset. 2014, the United Nations, Rome URL: http://data.fao.org/ref/f7e7adb0-88fd-11da-a88f-000d939bc5d8.html?version=1.0.
32. Friedman, M., A Theory of the consumption function. 1957, Princeton University Press, New Jersey.
33. Fuwa, N., The poverty and heterogeneity among female-headed households revisited: The case of panama. World Development 28 (2000), 1515–1542, 10.1016/S0305-750X(00)00036-X.
34. Gammage, S., The gender dimension of household poverty: Is headship still a useful concept?: Research paper. 1998, International Center for Research on Women, Washington, DC URL: < http://catalog.icrw.org/docs/1998reporthouseholdpoverty.pdf>.
35. Gilbert, L., Walker, L., Treading the path of least resistance: HIV/AIDS and social inequalities—a South African case study. Social Science & Medicine 54 (2002), 1093–1110, 10.1016/S0277-9536(01)00083-1.
36. Hall, R.E., Stochastic implications of the life cycle-permanent income hypothesis: Theory and evidence. Journal of Political Economy 86 (1978), 971–987 URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1840393.
37. Hidalgo, F.D., Naidu, S., Nichter, S., Richardson, N., Economic determinants of land invasions. Review of Economics and Statistics 92 (2010), 505–523, 10.1162/RESTa00007.
38. Hinks, T., Gender wage differentials and discrimination in the new South Africa. Applied Economics 34 (2002), 2043–2052, 10.1080/00036840210124991.
39. Hoddinott, J., Quisumbing, A., Methods for microeconometric risk and vulnerability assessments: Social protection discussion paper 29138. 2003, The World Bank, 10.2139/ssrn.1281055.
40. ICF International (2015). 1991–2014 demographic and health surveys (various). URL: < http://legacy.statcompiler.com/>.
41. IPCC, Climate change 2014 synthesis report. IPCC The Core Writing Team, Pachauri, R.K., Meyer, L., (eds.) Contribution of working groups I, II and III to the fifth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change, 2014, IPCC, Geneva URL: < http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/syr/SYRAR5FINALfull.pdf>.
42. IPCC, Summary for policymakers. Field, C., Barros, V., Dokken, D., Mach, K., Mastrandrea, M., Bilir, T., et al. (eds.) Climate change 2014: Impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability. Part A: Global and sectoral aspects. Contribution of working group II to the fifth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change, 2014, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge and New York URL: < http://ipcc-wg2.gov/AR5/images/uploads/WG2AR5SPMFINAL.pdf>.
43. Kane, R., Periodicities, enso effects and trends of some South African rainfall series: An update. South African Journal of Science 105 (2009), 199–207, 10.4102/sajs.v105i5/6.90 URL: < http://sajs.co.za/periodicities-enso-effects-and-trends-some-south-african-rainfall-series-update/kane-r>.
44. Klasen, S., Lechtenfeld, T., Povel, F., A feminization of vulnerability? Female headship, poverty, and vulnerability in Thailand and Vietnam. World Development 71 (2014), 36–53, 10.1016/j.worlddev.2013.11.003.
45. Kruger, A.C., Sekele, S.S., Trends in extreme temperature indices in South Africa: 1962–2009. International Journal of Climatology 33 (2013), 661–676, 10.1002/joc.3455.
46. Kudamatsu, M., Persson, T., Strmberg, D., Weather and infant mortality in Africa: CEPR discussion paper 9222. 2012, Center for Economic Policy Research.
47. Kumar, N., Quisumbing, A.R., Gendered impacts of the 2007–2008 food price crisis: Evidence using panel data from rural Ethiopia. Food Policy 38 (2013), 11–22, 10.1016/j.foodpol.2012.10.002.
48. Lampietti, J.A., Stalker, L., Consumption expenditure and female poverty: A review of the evidence: Policy Research Report on Gender and Development, Working Paper Series 11. 2000, The World Bank, Washington, DC URL: < http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.197.4869&rep=rep1&type=pdf>.
49. Leibbrandt, M., Levinsohn, J., McCrary, J., Incomes in South Africa since the fall of Apartheid: Research Seminar in International Economics Discussion paper 536. 2005, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor URL: < fordschool.umich.edu/rsie/workingpapers/Papers526-550/r536.pdf>.
50. Liebmann, B., Blade, I., Kiladis, G.N., Carvalho, L.M.V., Senay, B.G., Allured, D., et al. Seasonality of african precipitation from 1996 to 2009. Journal of Climate 25 (2012), 4304–4322, 10.1175/JCLI-D-11-00157.1.
51. Ligon, E., Schechter, L., Measuring vulnerability. The Economic Journal 113 (2003), 95–102, 10.1111/1468-0297.00117.
52. McIntosh, A., Sibanda, S., Vaughan, A., Xaba, T., Traditional authorities and land reform in South Africa: Lessons from kwazulu natal. Development Southern Africa 13 (1996), 339–357, 10.1080/03768359608439899.
53. McKeever, M., Wolfinger, N.H., Thanks for nothing: Income and labor force participation for never-married mothers since 1982. Social Science Research 40 (2011), 63–76, 10.1016/j.ssresearch.2010.06.008.
54. Miguel, E., Poverty and witch killing. The Review of Economic Studies 72 (2005), 1153–1172, 10.1111/0034-6527.00365.
55. Miguel, E., Satyanath, S., Sergenti, E., Economic shocks and civil conflict: An instrumental variables approach. Journal of Political Economy 112 (2004), 725–753.
56. Mokomane, Z., Family policy in South Africa. Robila, M., (eds.) Handbook of Family Policies Across the Globe, 2014, Springer, New York, 59–73, 10.1007/978-1-4614-6771-75.
57. Naidoo, S., Hilton, A., Access to finance for women entrepreneurs in South Africa: Challenges and opportunities. 2006, Brochure Enterprise and Industry Development Devision, Department of Trade and Industry, Government of South Africa, Pretoria URL: < http://www.dti.gov.za/economicempowerment/docs/womenempowerment/Access2Finance.pdf>.
58. Niang, I., Ruppel, O.C., Abdrabo, M.A., Essel, A., Lennard, C., Padgham, J., et al. Africa. Barros, V.R., Field, C.B., Dokken, D.J., Mastrandrea, M.D., Mach, K.J., Bilir, T.E., et al. (eds.) Climate change 2014: Impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability. Part B: Regional aspects. Contribution of working group II to the fifth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel of climate change, 2014, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge and New York, 1199–1265 URL: < http://ipcc-wg2.gov/AR5/images/uploads/WGIIAR5-Chap22FINAL.pdf>.
59. O'laughlin, B., Missing men? The debate over rural poverty and women-headed households in Southern Africa. The Journal of Peasant Studies 25 (1998), 1–48, 10.1080/03066159808438665.
60. Olsson, L., Opondo, M., Tschakert, P., Agrawal, A., Eriksen, S.H., Ma, S., et al. Livelihoods and poverty. Field, C.B., Barros, V.R., Dokken, D.J., Mach, K.J., Mastrandrea, M.D., Bilir, T.E., et al. (eds.) Climate change 2014: Impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability. Part A: Global and sectoral aspects. Contribution of working group II to the fifth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel of climate change, 2014, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge and New York, 793–832 URL: < http://ipcc-wg2.gov/AR5/images/uploads/WGIIAR5-PartAFINAL.pdf>.
61. Parry, M., Rosenzweig, C., Iglesias, A., Livermore, M., Fischer, G., Effects of climate change on global food production under sres emissions and socio-economic scenarios. Global Environmental Change 14 (2004), 53–67, 10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2003.10.008.
62. Patel, L., Social grants solve more problems than they may create. 2013, The Helen Joseph Memorial Lecture University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg URL: < www.uj.ac.za/EN/Newsroom/News/Documents/2013/Helen>.
63. Paxson, C.H., Using weather variability to estimate the response of savings to transitory income in Thailand. The American Economic Review 82 (1992), 15–33 URL: < http://www.jstor.org/stable/2117600>.
64. Pillay, U., Urban policy in post-apartheid South Africa: Context, evolution and future directions. Urban Forum 19 (2008), 109–132, 10.1007/s12132-008-9038-5.
65. Posel, D., Rogan, M., Women, income and poverty: Gendered access to resources in post-apartheid South Africa. Agenda 23 (2009), 25–34, 10.1080/10130950.2009.9676251.
66. Posel, D., Rogan, M., Gendered trends in poverty in the post-apartheid period 1997–2006. Development Southern Africa 29 (2012), 97–113, 10.1080/0376835X.2012.645645.
67. Posel, D., Rudwick, S., Casale, D., Is marriage a dying institution in South Africa? Exploring changes in marriage in the context of Ilobolo payments. Agenda 25 (2011), 102–111, 10.1080/10130950.2011.575589.
68. Posel, D.R., Who are the heads of household, what do they do and is the concept of headship useful? An analysis of headship in South Africa. Development Southern Africa 18 (2001), 651–670, 10.1080/03768350120097487.
69. Quisumbing, A.R., Haddad, L., Pea, C., Are women overrepresented among the poor? An analysis of poverty in 10 developing countries. Journal of Development Economics 66 (2001), 225–269, 10.1016/S0304-3878(01)00152-3.
70. Rahman, M.S., Climate change, disaster and gender vulnerability: A study on two divisions of Bangladesh. American Journal of Human Ecology 2 (2013), 72–82, 10.11634/216796221302315.
71. Rangan, H., Gilmartin, M., Gender, traditional authority, and the politics of rural reform in South Africa. Development and Change 33 (2002), 633–658, 10.1111/1467-7660.00273.
72. Rogan, M., Alternative definitions of headship and the feminisation of income poverty in post-apartheid South Africa. Journal of Development Studies 49 (2013), 1344–1357, 10.1080/00220388.2013.812199.
73. Rojas, O., Vrieling, A., Rembold, F., Assessing drought probability for agricultural areas in Africa with coarse resolution remote sensing imagery. Remote Sensing of Environment 115 (2011), 343–352, 10.1016/j.rse.2010.09.006.
74. Roodman, D., How to do xtabond2: An introduction to difference and system gmm in stata. Stata Journal 9 (2009), 86–136 URL: < https://ideas.repec.org/a/tsj/stataj/v9y2009i1p86-136.html>.
75. Rose, E., Consumption smoothing and excess female mortality in rural India. Review of Economics and Statistics 81 (1999), 41–49, 10.1162/003465399767923809.
76. Rosenhouse, S., Identifying the poor: Is headship a useful concept? Living Standards measurement study: Working Paper 58. 1989, The World Bank, Washington, DC URL: < http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/1989/07/442370/identifying-poor-headship-useful-concept>.
77. Schlenker, W., Lobell, D.B., Robust negative impacts of climate change on African agriculture. Environmental Research Letters, 5, 2010, 014010, 10.1088/1748-9326/5/1/014010.
78. Schumacher, J.A., Coffey, S.F., Norris, F.H., Tracy, M., Clements, K., Galea, S., Intimate partner violence and hurricane katrina: Predictors and associated mental health outcomes. Violence and Victims 25 (2010), 588–603, 10.1891/0886-6708.25.5.588.
79. Sderbom, M., Teal, F., Eberhardt, M., Quinn, S., Zeitlin, A., Empirical development economics. 2014, Routledge, New York.
80. Shackleton, S., Cobban, L., Cundill, G., A gendered perspective of vulnerability to multiple stressors including climate change, in the rural Eastern Cape, South Africa. Agenda 28 (2014), 73–89, 10.1080/10130950.2014.932560.
81. South African Institute for Race Relations, South Africa Survey 2012. Report. 2012, South African Institute of Race Relations URL: http://irr.org.za/reports-and-publications/south-africa-survey/south-africa-survey-2012.
82. Southern Africa Labour and Development Research Unit, National Income Dynamics Study 2008, wave 1 version 5.2. dataset. 2014, Southern Africa Labour and Development Research Unit, Cape Town URL: < http://www.datafirst.uct.ac.za/dataportal/index.php/catalog/451>.
83. Southern Africa Labour and Development Research Unit, National Income Dynamics Study 2010–11, wave 2 version 2.2. dataset. 2014, Southern Africa Labour and Development Research Unit, Cape Town URL: < http://www.datafirst.uct.ac.za/dataportal/index.php/catalog/452>.
84. Southern Africa Labour and Development Research Unit, National Income Dynamics Study 2012, wave 3 version 1.2. dataset. 2014, Southern Africa Labour and Development Research Unit, Cape Town URL: < http://www.datafirst.uct.ac.za/dataportal/index.php/catalog/453>.
85. Statistics South Africa, Census 2001: Primary tables South Africa—Census 1996 and 2001 compared: Report 03-02-04. 2004, Statistics South Africa, Pretoria URL: < www.statssa.gov.za/census01/html/RSAPrimary.pdf>.
86. Statistics South Africa, Income and expenditure of households 2010/2011. Statistical release P0100. 2012, Statistics South Africa, Pretoria URL: < beta2.statssa.gov.za/publications/P0100/P01002011.pdf>.
87. Statistics South Africa, Social profile of vulnerable groups in South Africa, 2002–11. Report. 2012, Statistics South Africa, Pretoria.
88. Statistics South Africa, Census 2011: Census in brief. Report 03–01-41. 2012, Statistics South Africa, Pretoria URL: < www.statssa.gov.za/census2011/Products/Census2011Censusinbrief.pdf>.
89. Statistics South Africa, General Household Survey 2011 (revised) Dataset. 2012, Statistics South Africa, Pretoria URL: < http://interactive.statssa.gov.za:8282/webview/>.
90. Statistics South Africa, Poverty trends in South Africa: An examination of absolute poverty between 2006 and 2011. Report 03-10-06. 2014, Statistics South Africa, Pretoria URL: < beta2.statssa.gov.za/publications/Report-03-10-06/Report-03-10-06March2014.pdf>.
91. Statistics South Africa, Census 2011, 10 percent sample. Dataset. 2014, Statistics South Africa, Pretoria URL: http://interactive.statssa.gov.za:8282/webview/.
92. Statistics South Africa, CPI History: 1960 onwards.: Technical Report. 2015, Statistics South Africa URL: < http://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/P0141/CPIHistory.pdf>.
93. Sugden, F., Maskey, N., Clement, F., Ramesh, V., Philip, A., Rai, A., Agrarian stress and climate change in the eastern gangetic plains: Gendered vulnerability in a stratified social formation. Global Environmental Change 29 (2014), 258–269, 10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2014.10.008.
94. Terry, G., No climate justice without gender justice: An overview of the issues. Gender and Development 17 (2009), 5–18, 10.1080/13552070802696839.
95. Thornton, P.K., Ericksen, P.J., Herrero, M., Challinor, A.J., Climate variability and vulnerability to climate change: A review. Global Change Biology 20 (2014), 3313–3328, 10.1111/gcb.12581.
96. Tibesigwa, B., Visser, M., Collinson, M., Twine, W., Gender differences in climate change risk, food security, and adaptation: A study of rural household's reliance on agriculture and natural resources to sustain livelihoods: Environment for development discussion paper series EfD DP 15–20. 2015, Economics Policy Research Unit, Cape Town URL: < http://www.rff.org/research/publications/gender-differences-climate-change-risk-food-security-and-adaptation-study>.
97. Vincent, K. (2007). Gendered vulnerability to climate change in Limpopo province, South Africa. Ph.D. thesis. University of East Anglia.
98. Whittenbury, K., Climate change, women's health, wellbeing and experiences of gender based violence in Australia. Alston, M., Whittenbury, K., (eds.) Research, action and policy: Addressing the gendered impacts of climate change, 2013, Springer, Houten, Netherlands, 207–221, 10.1007/978-94-007-5518-515.
99. Willemse, J., Strydom, D., Venter, M., Implications of the lingering 2015 drought on the economy, agricultural markets, food processors, input suppliers and the consumer report. 2015, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein URL: http://www.agrisa.co.za/drought-effect-ananlysis-ufs-reports/.
100. Willis, K., Women's work and social network use in Oaxaca city, Mexico. Bulletin of Latin American Research 12 (1993), 65–82, 10.2307/3338813.
101. World Bank, World development report 2012: Gender equality and development report. 2012, World Bank, Washington, DC URL: < http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWDR2012/Resources/7778105-1299699968583/7786210-1315936222006/Complete-Report.pdf>.
102. Wright, G., Noble, M., Ntshongwana, P., Barnes, H., & Neves, D. (2013). Lone mothers in South Africa: The role of social security in respecting and protecting dignity. Technical Report. Cape Town. URL: < http://www.casasp.ox.ac.uk/docs/TWP1LoneMothersinSA.pdf>.