The advent of the age of iron in the land of Israel: A review and reassessment

Tel Aviv

Volumn 37, Issue 1, 2010, Pages 89-110

  Gottlieb, Yulia ^a  

^a TEL AVIV UNIVERSITY   (Israel)

Author keywords

BEERSHEBA valley; IRON age; IRON and copper working

Indexed keywords

EID: 85000577615     PISSN: 03344355     EISSN: 20404786     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1179/033443510x12632070179469     Document Type: Article

References (90)

1. Albright, W.F. 1943. The Excavation of Tell Belt Mirsim 3: The Iron Age (AASOR 21–22). New Haven.
2. Bachmann, H-G. 1983. Metallanalysen. In: Fritz, V. and Kempinski, A. Ergebnisse der Ausgrabungen auf der Ilirbet el-Mã S" (Tel Masos) 1972–1975 (Abhandlungen des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins 6). Wiesbaden: 198–206.
3. Ben-Shlomo, D. 2006. Selected Objects. In: Meehl, M.W., Dothan, T., and Gitin, S., 2006. Tel Miqne-Ekron Excavations 1995–1996: Field INE East Slope Iron Age I (Early Philistine Period) (Tel Miiine-Ekron Final Report Series No. 8, Institute of Archaeology, Hebrew University of Jerusalem). Jerusalem: 189–205.
4. Ben-Tor, A., and Rubiato Diaz, M.T. 1996. The Renewed Excavations of Tell Hazor, 1990–1995. Qadmoniot 111: 2–18 (Hebrew).
5. Blakelock, E., Martinón-Torres, M., Veldhuijzen, H.A., and Young, T. 2009. Slag Inclusions in Iron Objects and the Quest for Provenance: An Experiment and a Case Study. Journal of Archaeological Science 36: 1745–1757.
6. Bunimovitz, S., and Lederman, Z. 2003. Tel Beth Shemesh, 2001-2003. IEJ 53: 233–237.
7. Bunimovitz, S., and Lederman, Z. 2006. The Early Israelite Monarchy in the Sorek Valley: Tel Beth-Shemesh and Tel Batash (Timnah) in the 10th and 9th Centuries BCE. In: Maeir, A.M. and Miroschedji, P., de. "I Will Speak the Riddles of Ancient Time": Archaeological and Historical Studies in Honor of Amihai Mazar on the Occasion of His Sixtieth Birthday. Winona Lake: 407–427.
8. Bunimovitz, S., and Lederman, Z. 2009. The Archaeology of Border Communities. Renewed Excavations at Tel Beth-Shemesh, Part I: The Iron Age. NEA 72: 114–142.
9. Callaway, J.A. 1974. Khirbet Raddana. RB 81: 91–94.
10. Callaway, J.A. 1993a. Ai. NEAEHL 1: 39–45.
11. Callaway, J.A. 1993b. Raddana, Khirbet. NEAEHL 4: 1253–1254.
12. Chambon, A. 1984. Tell el-Far`ah I. L'Age du Fer. (Editions Recherche sur les Civilisations; "Memoire" 31). Paris.
13. Cohen, R., and Cohen-Amin, R. 2004. Ancient Settlement of the Negev Highlands, Vol. 2: The Iron Age and the Persian Period (IAA Reports 20). Jerusalem (Hebrew).
14. Criisemann, F. 1983. Die Kleinfunde. In: Fritz, V. and Kempinski, A. Ergebnisse der Ausgrabungen auf der Ilirbet el-Mã S" (Tel Masos) 1972–1975 (Abhandlungen des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins 6). Wiesbaden: 91–133.
15. Davis, D., Maddin R., Muhly, J.D., and Stech, T., 1985. A Steel Pick from Mt. Adir in Palestine. JNES 44: 41–51.
16. Dothan, M., and Ben-Shlomo, D. 2005. Ashdod VI. The Excavations of Areas H and K (1968–1969) (IAA Reports 24). Jerusalem.
17. Dothan, M., and Porath, Y. 1982. Ashdod IV Excavation of Area M: The Fortifications of the Lower City (cAtiqot 15). Jerusalem.
18. Dothan, M., and Porath, Y. 1993. Ashdod V Excavations of Area G: The Fourth-Sixth Seasons of Excavations 1968–1970 (cAtiqot 23). Jerusalem.
19. Dothan, T. 1989. Iron Knives from Tel Miqne-Ekron. El 20: 154–163 (Hebrew; English summary p. 199*–200*).
20. Dothan, T. 2002. Bronze and Iron Objects with Cultural Connotations from Philistine Temple Building 350 at Ekron. IEJ 52: 1–27.
21. Fantalkin, A., and Finkelstein, I. 2006. The Sheshonq I Campaign and the 8th-Century-BCE EarthquakeMore on the Archaeology and History of the South in the Iron I-IIA. TelAviv 33: 18–42.
22. Finkelstein, I. 1988. The Archaeology of the Israelite Settlement. Jerusalem.
23. Finkelstein, I., ed. 1993. Shiloh: The Archaeology of a Biblical Site (Monograph Series of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University 10). Tel Aviv.
24. Finkelstein, I. 2002. The Campaign of Shoshenq I to Palestine: A Guide to the 10th Century BCE Polity. ZDPV 118: 109–135.
25. Finkelstein, I. 2005a. A Low Chronology Update: Archaeology, History, and Bible. In: Levy, T.E. and Higham, T., eds. The Bible and Radiocarbon Dating: Archaeology, Test and Science. London: 31–42.
26. Finkelstein, I. 2005b. Khirbet en-Nahas, Edom and Biblical History. Tel Aviv 32: 119-125. Finkelstein, I. and Piasetzky, E. 2006. The Iron II-IIA in the Highlands and Beyond: 14C Anchors, Pottery Phases and the Shoshenq I Campaign. Levant 38: 45–61.
27. Finkelstein, I., and Piasetzky, E. 2008. Radiocarbon and the History of Copper Production at Khirbet en-Nahas. Tel Aviv 35: 82–91.
28. Finkelstein, I., and Singer-Avitz, L. 2001. Ashdod Revisited. Tel Aviv 28: 231–259.
29. Finkelstein, I., and Singer-Avitz, L. 2009. Reevaluating Bethel. ZDPV 125: 33–48.
30. Folk, R., and Liebowitz, H. 2003. The Iron Smelter. In: Liebowitz, H. Tel Yin 'am I: The Late Bronze Age. Excavations at Tel Yin 'am 1976–1989. Austin: 221–232.
31. Frick, F.S. 2000. Tell Ta'annek 1963–1968, IV/2: The Iron Age Cultic Structure. Birzeit.
32. Fritz, V., and Wittstock, A. 1983. Area H. In: Fritz, V. and Kempinski, A. Ergebnisse der Ausgrabungen auf der Ilirbet el-MMS. (Tel Masos) 1972–1975 (Abhandlungen des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins 6). Wiesbaden: 36/14.
33. Gal, Z., and Alexandre, Y. 2000. Horbat Rosh Zayit: An Iron Storage Fort and Village (IAA Reports 8). Jerusalem.
34. Gitin, S. 1987. Urban Growth and Decline at Ekron in the Iron II Period. BA 50: 206–222. Givon, S. 1996. The Excavation at Tel Masos 1979. Tel Aviv (Hebrew).
35. Gottlieb, Y. In preparation. Beersheba Under Attack: The Missiles and the History of the Iron Age Settlement's Destructions.
36. Grant, E., and Wright, G.E. 1939. Am Shems Excavations (Palestine). Part V (Text). Haverford, CT.
37. Greenberg, R. 1987. New Light on the Early Iron Age at Tell Beit Mirsim. BASOR 265: 55–80.
38. Harrison T.P. Megiddo 3: Final Report on the Stratum VI Excavations (0IP 127). Chicago: 153–174.
39. Herzog, Z. 1984. Beer-Sheba II: The Early Iron Age Settlements (Publications of the Institute of Archaeology 7). Tel Aviv.
40. Herzog, Z. 2002. The Fortress Mound at Arad: An Interim Report. Tel Aviv 29: 3–109.
41. Herzog, Z., and Singer-Avitz, L. 2004. Redefining the Centre: the Emergence of State in Judah. Tel Aviv 31: 209–244.
42. Herzog, Z., and Singer-Avitz, L. 2006. Sub-Dividing the Iron Age IIA in Northern Israel: A Suggested Solution to the Chronological Debate. Tel Aviv 33: 163–195.
43. Hopkins, D.C. 1985. The Highlands of Canaan: Agricultural Life in the Early Iron Age (The Social World of Biblical Antiquity Series 3). Sheffield.
44. Ilan, D. 1999. Northeastern Israel in the Iron Age I: Cultural, Socioeconomic and Political Perspectives (Ph.D. dissertation, Tel Aviv University). Tel Aviv.
45. James, F.W. 1966. The Iron Age at Beth Shan: A Study of Levels VI-IV. Philadelphia.
46. Kelso, J.L. 1968. The Excavation of Bethel (1934-1960) (AASOR 39). Cambridge, MA.
47. Kempinski, A., Rosel, H., Gilboa, E., and Stahlheber, Th., 1983. Die frnheisenzeitliche Siedlung. 1.1 Die Architektur. Area A. In: Fritz, V. and Kempinski, A. Ergebnisse der Ausgrabungen auf der Ilirbet el-Mã S" (Tel Masos) 1972–1975 (Abhandlungen des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins 6). Wiesbaden: 7–34.
48. Knauf, E.A., and Lenzen, C.J. 1987. Edomite Copper Industry. Studies in the History and Archaeology of Jordan 3: 83–88.
49. Lamon, R.S., and Shipton, G.M. 1939. Megiddo I: Seasons of 1925–34, Strata I-V (0IP 42). Chicago.
50. Levy, T.E., Adams, R.B., Najjar, M., Hauptmann, A., Anderson, J.D., Brandl, B., Robinson, M.A., and Higham, T. 2004. Reassessing the Chronology of Biblical Edom: New Excavations and 14C Dates from Khirbet en-Nahas (Jordan). Antiquity 78: 865–879.
51. Loud, G. 1948. Megiddo II: Seasons of 1935–39 (0IP 62). Chicago.
52. Lupu, A. 1983. Analysentabellen. In: Fritz, V. and Kempinski, A. Ergebnisse der Ausgrabungen auf der Ilirbet el-Mã S" (Tel Masos) 1972–1975 (Abhandlungen des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins 6). Wiesbaden: 202–208.
53. Lupu, A. 1987. Metal Objects and Building Materials: A Chemical Report. In: Finkelstein, I. clzbet Sartah: An Early Iron Age Site near Rosh Hacayin, Israel (BAR International Series 299). Oxford: 135–140.
54. Maddin, R., Muhly, J.D., and Stech, T. 1987. An Iron Axe from Tell Qiri. In: Ben-Tor, A. and Portugali, Y. Tell Qiri: A Village in the Jezreel Valley. Report of the Archaeological Excavations 1975–1977 (Qedem 24). Jerusalem: 244–245.
55. Mazar, A. 1985. Excavations at Tell Qasile. Part 2, Various Finds, The Pottery, Conclusions, Appendices (Qedem 20). Jerusalem.
56. Mazar, A. 2001. Timnah (Tel Batash) II (Qedem 42). Jerusalem.
57. Mazar, A. 2005. The Debate over the Chronology of the Iron Age in the Southern Levant: Its History, the Current Situation, and a Suggested Resolution. In: Levy, T.E. and Higham, T., eds. The Bible and Radiocarbon Dating: Archaeology, Test and Science. London: 15–30.
58. Mazar, A. 2006. Excavations at Tel Beth Shean 1989–1996. Jerusalem.
59. Mazar, A. 2009. The Iron Age Dwellings at Tell Qasile. In: Schloen, J.D., ed. Exploring the Longue Durée. Essays in Honor of Lawrence E. Stager. Winona Lake: 319–336.
60. Mazar (Maisler), B. 1950–1951. The Excavations at Tell Qasile. Preliminary Report. IEJ 1: 61–76; 125–140; 194–218.
61. McNutt, P.M. 1990. The Forging of Israel. Iron Technology, Symbolism, and Tradition in Ancient Society (JSOT.S 108; The Social World of Biblical Antiquity Series 8). Sheffield.
62. Muhly, J.D., Maddin, R., and Stech, T. 1990. The Metal Artifacts. In: Fritz V. Kinneret: Ergebnisse der Ausgrabungen auf dem Tell el- Vréme am See Gennesaret 1982–1985 (Abhandlungen des Deutschen Palastina-Vereins 15). Wiesbaden: 159–175.
63. Negbi, O. 1974. The Continuity of the Canaanite Bronzework of the Late Bronze Age into the Early Iron Age. Tel Aviv 1: 159–170.
64. Paice, P. 2004. The Small Finds. In: Harrison T.P. Megiddo 3: Final Report on the Stratum VI Excavations (0IP 127). Chicago: 59–103.
65. Paz, I. In preparation. Selected Metal Objects from Tel Beer-sheba (Strata V-II).
66. Renfrew, C. 1984. The Anatomy of Innovation. In: Approaches to Social Archaeology. Edinburgh: 390–418.
67. Rothenberg, B. 1975. Metals and Metallurgy. In: Aharoni, Y. et al. Lachish V Investigations at Lachish: The Sanctuary and the Residency. (Tel Aviv University, Publications of the Institute of Archaeology No. 4). Tel Aviv: 72–83.
68. Rowe, A. 1940. The Four Canaanite Temples of Beth Shan. Philadelphia.
69. Sass, B. 2000. The Small, Finds. In Finkelstein, I., Ussishkin, D., and Halpern, B., eds. Megiddo III: The 1992–1996 Seasons (Monograph Series of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University 18). Tel Aviv: 349–423.
70. Sass, B. 2004. Vessels, Tools, Personal Objects, Figurative Art and Varia. In: Ussishkin D. The Renewed Archaeological Excavations at Lachish (1973–1994) (Monograph Series of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University 22). Vol. 5. Tel Aviv: 1983–2057.
71. Sass, B., and Cinnamon, G. 2006. The Small Finds. In: Finkelstein I., Ussishkin D. and Halpern B. Megiddo IV: The 1998–2002 Seasons (Monograph Series of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University 24). Tel Aviv: 353–425.
72. Sass, B., and Ussishkin, D. 2004. Spears, Armour Scales and Slingstones. In: Ussishkin, D. The Renewed Archaeological Excavations at Lachish (1973–1994) (Monograph Series of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University 22). Vol. 4. Tel Aviv: 1970–1982.
73. Schumacher, G. 1908. Tell el-Mutesellim Fundbericht. Leipzig.
74. Shalev, S. 1993. Metal Production and Society at Tel Dan. In: Biblical Archaeology Today, 1990. Proceedings of the Second International Congress on Biblical Archaeology: Population, Production and Power, Jerusalem, June 1990. Jerusalem: 57–65.
75. Singer-Avitz, L. 2008. The Earliest Settlement at Kadesh Barnea. Tel Aviv 35: 73–81.
76. Stech-Wheeler, T., et al. 1981. Iron at Ta'anach and Early Iron Metallurgy in the Eastern Mediterranean. AJA 85: 245–268.
77. Tebes, J.M. 2007. "A Land Whose Stones Are Iron, and Out of Whose Hills You Can Dig Copper": The Exploitation and Circulation of Copper in the Iron Age Negev and Edom. DavarLogos 6.1: 69–91.
78. Tylecote, R.F. 1976. A History of Metallurgy. London.
79. Ussishkin, D. 2007. Megiddo and Samaria: A Rejoinder to Norma Franklin. In: BASOR 348: 49–70.
80. VanBeek G.W., 1993. Jemmeh, Tell. NEAEHL 2: 667–674.
81. Veldhuijzen, H.A., and Rehren, T. 2007. Slags, and the City: Early Iron Production at Tell Hammeh, Jordan, and Tel Beth-Shemesh, Israel. In: La Niece, S., Hook, D. and Craddock, P., eds. Metals and Mines-Studies in Archaeometallurgy. London: 189–201.
82. Veldhuijzen, H.A. 2009. Red Hot: The Smithy at Tel Beth-Shemesh. In: Bunimovitz, S. and Lederman, Z. The Archaeology of Border Communities. Renewed Excavations at Tel Beth-Shemesh, Part I: The Iron Age. NEA 72: 129–131.
83. Waldbaum, J.C. 1978. From Bronze to Iron (Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 54). Gothenburg.
84. Waldbaum, J.C. 1980. The First Archaeological Appearance of Iron, and the Transition to the Iron Age. In: Wertime, T.A. and Muhly, J.D., eds. The Coming of the Age of Iron. New Haven: 69–98.
85. Waldbaum, J.C. 1999. The Coming of Iron in the Eastern Mediterranean. Thirty Years of Archaeological and Technical Research. In: Pigott, V.C., ed. The Archaeometallurgy of the Asian Old World (MASCA Research Papers in Science and Archaeology 16). Philadelphia: 27–58.
86. Wright, H.G. 1989. Elemental Analysis of Late Bronze and Iron Age Iron Objects Found in Israel. Sydney.
87. Yadin, Y., et al. 1960. Hazor II: An Account of the Second Season of Excavations, 1956. Jerusalem.
88. Yadin, Y., et al. 1961 (plates), 1989 (text). Hazor III-IV: An Account of the Third and Fourth Seasons of Excavations, 1957–1958. Jerusalem.
89. Yahalom-Mack, N., and. 2005. Metal Production, and Utilization. In: Ben-Tor, A., Zarzecki-Peleg, A., and, eds. Yokne 'am II: The Iron Age and the Persian Period. Final Report of the Archaeological Excavations (1977–1988) (Qedem Reports 6). Jerusalem: 367–376.
90. Zarzecki-Peleg, A. 2005. Tel Megiddo during the Iron Age land IIA-JIB. The Excavations of the Yadin Expedition at Megiddo and Their Contribution for Comprehending the History of the Site in Northern Israel (Ph.D. dissertation, The Hebrew University). Jerusalem (Hebrew).