Ike and the Interstates: Creeping toward Comprehensive Planning

Journal of Planning History

Volumn 2, Issue 3, 2003, Pages 237-262

  Mohl, Raymond A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA AT BIRMINGHAM   (United States)

Author keywords

Eisenhower; planning; transportation; urban expressways

Indexed keywords

EID: 84992862371     PISSN: 15385132     EISSN: 15526585     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/1538513203256244     Document Type: Article

References (217)

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54. Gary T. Schwartz, “Urban Freeways and the Interstate System,” Southern California Law Review 49 (1976): 493-95.
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61. Dwight D. Eisenhower, 5 January 1955.
62. Dwight D. Eisenhower, 12 December 1955.
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66. Dwight D. Eisenhower, The White House Years: Mandate for Change, 1953-1956 (New York: Doubleday, 1963), 548.
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69. Thomas H. MacDonald, “Looking toward the Highway Future,” American Highways 16 (1937): 4-7.
70. Eisenhower, Mandate for Change, 501-2, 548.
71. Martin Packman, “New Highways,” Editorial Research Reports 2 (1954): 887-904, at 891.
72. Arthur F. Burns, Prosperity without Inflation (New York: Fordham University Press, 1957), 69-70.
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74. Ambrose, Eisenhower: The President, 250.
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76. “The Controversy over the President's New Ten-Year Highway Program,” Congressional Digest 34 (1955): 131-60.
77. “Blueprint for an Expanded Highway Program,” Roads and Streets 99 (1956): 93-118.
78. Duane L. Cronk, “Washington News Letter,” Roads and Streets 99 (1956): 19-20.
79. “$51.5 Billions for Roads? Who'll Pay the Bill,” U.S. News and World Report 40 (10 February 1956): 134-139.
80. “Who Will Get the 50 Billions for Roads,” U.S. News and World Report 40 (29 June 1956): 27-30.
81. Rose, Interstate, 69-94.
82. Richard O. Davies, The Age of Asphalt: The Automobile, the Freeway, and the Condition of Metropolitan America (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1975), 16-27.
83. Tom Lewis, Divided Highways: Building the Interstate Highways, Transforming American Life (New York: Viking, 1997), 95-123.
84. Theodore H. White, “Where Are Those New Roads?” Collier's 137 (6 January 1956): 45-51.
85. Daniel P. Moynihan, “New Roads and Urban Chaos,” The Reporter 22 (14 April 1960): 13-20, at 14.
86. “No More Traffic Jams,” U.S. News and World Report 41 (20 July 1956): 72-80.
87. “How Freeways Will Break Traffic Bottlenecks of Big Cities,” U.S. News and World Report 41 (14 September 1956): 68-73.
88. Robinson Newcomb, “Highway Program Is Big—But It's Not Big Enough,” Engineering News-Record 160 (19 June 1958): 38-43.
89. Buford M. Haydon, “The Planning Challenge of the Federal Highway System,” American City 71 (September 1956): 130-32.
90. “The Urban Framework to the Interstate Highway Plan,” American City 71 (October 1956): 136-39.
91. “Ironing Out Traffic Locally,” American City 72 (January 1957): 122-23.
92. Stewart Fisher, “Expressway Doings in San Antonio,” American City 72 (March 1957): 123.
93. “Hooking into the Interstate Highway System,” American City 72 (April 1957): 132-133.
94. E. Willard Dennis, “Impact of the Federal Highway Program,” Planning 1957: Selected Papers from the National Planning Conference, San Francisco, California, March 17-21, 1957 (Chicago: American Society of Planning Officials, 1957), 45-49.
95. Frieden and Sagalyn, Downtown, Inc., 20-22.
96. Raymond A. Mohl, “Planned Destruction: The Interstates and Central City Housing,” in From Tenements to the Taylor Homes: In Search of an Urban Housing Policy in Twentieth-Century America, ed. John F. Bauman, Roger Biles, and Kristin M. Szylvian (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000), 226-45.
97. Harold Taubin, “Federal Government and Local Planning,” American Planning and Civic Annual (Washington, DC: American Planning and Civic Association, 1956), 93.
98. John T. Howard, “The Impact of the Federal Highway Program,” Planning 1957: Selected Papers from the National Planning Conference, San Francisco, California, March 17-21, 1957 (Chicago: American Society of Planning Officials, 1957), 35-41, at 39, 40.
99. John T. Howard, “Tomorrow's Highways,” National Municipal Review 47 (September 1958): 378-83, at 379.
100. John T. Howard, “Integrated Planning,” Traffic Quarterly 14 (October 1960): 419-35.
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108. Edward T. Chase, “The Future of the City,” Commonweal 66 (11 October 1957): 39-42.
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110. Owen, Metropolitan Transportation Problem, 65.
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112. Owen, Cities in the Motor Age (New York: Viking, 1959), 31-33.
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115. Owen continued the critique in the revised edition of his book The Metropolitan Transportation Problem (rev. ed.; New York: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1966).
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124. William S. Pollard, “Transportation Planning Re-examined,” Journal of the City Planning Division, Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers 89 (September 1963): 17-45.
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126. “Statement of Robert Moses,” 9 May 1955, National Highway Program: Hearings before the Committee on Public Works, House of Representatives, Eighty-fourth Congress, First session (Washington, DC, 1955), 402-9.
127. C. W. Phillips to Engineering Files, 9 December 1959, BPR Records, RG 30, Bragdon Committee Files, Box 1614.
128. Schwartz, “Urban Freeways,” 483.
129. Schwartz, “Urban Freeways,” 485.
130. Eisenhower, Mandate for Change, 127-28.
131. Moynihan, “New Roads,” 16.
132. Saulnier, Constructive Years, 8-9, 23-24, 231-32.
133. Arthur F. Burns to Roger W. Jones, 2 August 1956.
134. DDE Library; Saulnier, Constructive Years, 26-35.
135. Carroll Kilpatrick, “Ike's Minister for Prosperity,” Collier's 137 (25 May 1955): 82-86.
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137. “Good Times ahead, 400-Billion-Dollar Economy,” U.S. News and World Report 39 (14 October 1955): 48-51.
138. Martin Anderson, The Federal Bulldozer: A Critical Analysis of Urban Renewal, 1949-1962 (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1964), 56-57.
139. John B. Willmann, The Department of Housing and Urban Development (New York: Praeger, 1967), 16-17.
140. President's Advisory Committee on Government Housing Policies and Programs, A Report to the President of the United States (Washington, DC, 1953), 267.
141. Joseph N. Bell, “Merriam of Chicago: Politician without a Party,” Harper's Magazine 209 (November 1954): 52-58.
142. “Illinois: Convert to the Fray,” Newsweek 44 (29 November 1954): 29-30.
143. “Political Notes: 24 Years after Big Bill,” Time 65 (3 January 1955): 16.
144. James V. Cunningham, “Political Battle in Chicago,” Commonweal 51 (11 February 1955): 497-500.
145. “Chicago Puzzle: Who Got the ‘Morality,’” New Republic 132 (7 March 1955): 5-6.
146. Elmer Gertz, “Chicago's Hectic Race,” The Nation 180 (2 April 1955): 281-83.
147. “Chicago Ain't Ready,” Newsweek 45 (18 April 1955): 26.
148. “Who Will Run the White House Now,” U.S. News and World Report 45 (3 October 1958): 25-27.
149. Robert E. Merriam, “Significant Trends in Municipal Politics,” Vital Speeches of the Day 22 (1 March 1956): 316-20.
150. Robert E. Merriam, “Federal Fiscal Policy: Its Impact on Local Government Finance,” Municipal Finance 32 (August 1959): 10-16.
151. Gelfand, Nation of Cities, 180-82.
152. Robert E. Merriam and Rachel M. Goetz, Going into Politics: A Guide for Citizens (New York: Harper, 1957).
153. Robert E. Merriam, Dark December: The Full Account of the Battle of the Bulge (Chicago: Ziff-Davis, 1947).
154. “Study on Intergovernmental Relations Gets Under Way,” National Municipal Review 43 (March 1954): 150.
155. Robert E. Merriam, “Partners or Rivals?” National Municipal Review 45 (December 1956): 532-36.
156. William B. Shore, “Developments in Public Administration,” Public Administration Review 18 (1958): 147-48.
157. “Minutes of the First Meeting of the Ad Hoc Interagency Committee on Metropolitan Area Problems,” 30 October 1957, Merriam Papers, Box 1, DDE Library.
158. Gelfand, Nation of Cities, 176-80.
159. “Minutes of the Third Meeting of the Ad Hoc Interagency Committee on Metropolitan Area Problems,” 16 June 1960, Merriam Papers, Box 1, DDE Library.
160. “Minutes of the Fourth Meeting of the Ad Hoc Interagency Committee on Metropolitan Area Problems,” 18 November 1960, Merriam Papers, Box 1, DDE Library.
161. Staff Paper, “Coordination of Federal Metropolitan Area Development Activities,” 19 December 1960,.
162. Robert E. Merriam to David Bell and Frederick Dutton, 17 January 1961, Merriam Papers, Box 1, DDE Library.
163. Bart Hague to John D. Bragdon, 30 April 1959, John S. Bragdon Papers, Box 36, DDE Library.
164. David G. McComb, 1 November 1968.
165. Lyndon B. Johnson Library, Austin, Texas; Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1960-61 (Washington, DC, 1961), 414.
166. “Joint Agreement Drafted for Highway and Urban Plans,” Public Management 43 (March 1961): 64.
167. Dwight D. Eisenhower to John S. Bragdon, 12 August 1955, John S. Bragdon Papers, Box 2, DDE Library.
168. Deming to Bragdon and Meek, 16 December 1955, Bragdon Papers, Box 2, DDE Library.
169. John S. Bragdon to Staff, 25 July 1956, Bragdon Papers, Box 2, DDE Library.
170. Ernest Mickel, “Taking Stock: The President's Public Works Coordinator,” Architectural Record (1956): 32, 366.
171. John S. Bragdon to Council of Economic Advisors, “The National Highway Program and Tolls,” 31 March 1955, Bragdon Papers, Box 37, DDE Library.
172. John S. Bragdon to Council of Economic Advisors, “Toll Roads,” 22 April 1955, Bragdon Papers, Box 37, DDE Library.
173. John S. Bragdon to Arthur F. Burns, “Modernizing the Nation's Highways,” 30 November 1955, Bragdon Papers, Box 37, DDE Library.
174. A. K. Branham to John S. Bragdon, “Mass Transportation,” 9 February 1960, Bragdon Papers, Box 39, DDE Library.
175. William K. Brussat to John S. Bragdon, “Use of Interstate System as State Toll Roads,” 30 April 1959, Bragdon Papers, Box 36, DDE Library.
176. William K. Brussat to John S. Bragdon and Floyd D. Peterson, 18 May 1960, Bragdon Papers, Box 30, DDE Library.
177. Bragdon to Eisenhower, 17 June 1959, Bragdon Papers, Box 36, DDE Library.
178. Bragdon to Frederick H. Mueller, 30 December 1959.
179. BPR Records, RG 30, General correspondence and Related Records, 1960-65, Box 1612.
180. Lewis, Divided Highways, 145-53.
181. Fred I. Greenstein, The Hidden-Hand Presidency: Eisenhower as Leader (New York: Basic Books, 1982).
182. Chester J. Pach Jr. and Elmo Richardson, The Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1991).
183. Fred Greenstein, “Eisenhower's Leadership Style,” in Eisenhower: A Centenary Assessment, ed. Gunter Bischof and Stephen E. Ambrose (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1995), 55-63.
184. John S. Bragdon, “Memorandum for the Record,” 30 November 1959, Bragdon Papers, Box 40, DDE Library.
185. Dwight D. Eisenhower to John S. Bragdon, 2 July 1959, Bragdon Papers, Box 41, DDE Library.
186. Bart Hague to John S. Bragdon, 30 April 1959, Bragdon Papers, Box 36, DDE Library.
187. John D. Bragdon to Bertram D. Tallamy, 9 February 1959, Bragdon Papers, Box 36, DDE Library.
188. Tallamy to Bragdon, 18 February 1959, Bragdon Papers, Box 36, DDE Library.
189. Tallamy to Mueller, 13 October 1959, BPR Records, RG 30, General correspondence, Box 1614.
190. Mueller to Tallamy, 28 October 1959, BPR Records, RG 30, General correspondence, Box 1614.
191. Mueller to Bragdon, 28 October 1959, Bragdon Papers, Box 40, DDE Library.
192. Bragdon to Tallamy, 11 January 1960, BPR Records, RG 30, General correspondence, Box 1612.
193. “Interim Report: Progress Review of National System of Interstate and Defense Highways,” 9 January 1960.
194. C.W. Enfield to Tallamy, 29 January 1960, BPR Records, RG 30, General correspondence, Box 1613.
195. Bureau of the Budget, “Report on Legislative Intent with Respect to the Location of Interstate Routes in Urban Areas and the Concept of Local Needs in Section 116 of the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956,” September 1959, BPR Records, RG 30, General correspondence, Box 1612.
196. Dwight D. Eisenhower, 10 August 1959, DDE Papers, General Files, Box 1232, DDE Library.
197. Charles C. Dail (San Diego) to Eisenhower, 11 August 1959, DDE Papers, General Files, Box 1232, DDE Library.
198. William B. Hartsfield (Atlanta) to Eisenhower, 17 August 1959, DDE Papers, General Files, Box 1232, DDE Library.
199. Clifford E. Rishell (Oakland) to Eisenhower, 14 August 1959, DDE Papers, General Files, Box 1232, DDE Library.
200. Richard Y. Batterton (Denver) to Eisenhower, 17 August 1959, DDE Papers, General Files, Box 1232, DDE Library.
201. John W. Yager (Toledo) to Eisenhower, 17 August 1959, DDE Papers, General Files, Box 1232, DDE Library.
202. “Too Many Frills on Interstate?” Engineering News Record (1 October 1959): 21.
203. U.S. Bureau of Public Roads, General Location of National System of Interstate Highways, Including All Additional Routes at Urban Areas Designated in September 1955 (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Commerce, 1955), copy in Merriam Papers, Box 7, DDE Library.
204. Lewis, Divided Highways, 151-52.
205. Lee Mertz, “The Bragdon Committee” (U. S. Department of Transportation, unpublished manuscript), 33-37, copy in author's possession.
206. Suzanne Farkas, Urban Lobbying: Mayors in the Federal Arena (New York: New York University Press, 1971), 62.
207. Emmett Welch to Floyd D. Peterson, “President Eisenhower's Statements regarding the Interstate Highway Program,” 12 July 1960, Bragdon Papers, Box 39, DDE Library.
208. “Ike on Inflation, Highways, Housing, Medical Costs,” U.S. News and World Report 46 (25 May 1959): 114-15.
209. Burns to Jones, 2 August 1956, DDE Papers, Gerald D. Morgan Files, Box 14, DDE Library.
210. Robert Griffith, “Dwight D. Eisenhower and the Corporate Commonwealth,” American Historical Review 87 (February 1982): 87-122, at 106.
211. Norman Beckman, “Our Federal System and Urban Development: The Adaptation of Form to Function,” Journal of the American Institute of Planners 29 (1963): 152-167.
212. Norman Beckman, “Impact of the Transportation Planning Process,” Traffic Quarterly 20 (1966): 159-73.
213. Thomas A. Moorehouse, “The 1962 Highway Act: A Study in Artful Interpretation,” Journal of the American Institute of Planners 35 (1969): 160-68.
214. Walter K. Johnson, “The 1962 Highway Act: Its Long Term Significance,” Urban Law Annual 3 (1970): 57-64;.
215. George M. Smerk, Urban Mass Transportation: A Dozen Years of Federal Policy (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1974).
216. Angus Macbeth and Peter W. Sly, “How to Hold up the Highwayman,” The Concrete Opposition (March 1972).
217. Raymond A. Mohl, “Stop the Road: Freeway Revolts in American Cities,” Journal of Urban History 30 (forthcoming).