The strength of a scientific culture: Interpreting disorder in colonial science

Indian Economic & Social History Review

Volumn 34, Issue 2, 1997, Pages 217-250

  Sangwan, Satpal ^a  

^a National Institute of Science Technology and Development Studies India   (India)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84992784316     PISSN: 00194646     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/001946469703400204     Document Type: Article

References (205)

1. Joseph Ben-David, ‘The Profession of Science and Its Powers’, Minerva, Vol. 10, No. 3, 1972, pp. 362–83.
2. George Basalla, ‘The Spread of Western Science’, Science, Vol. 156, May 1967, pp. 611–22.
3. Michel Foucault, ‘On Governmentality’, Ideology and Consciousness, Vol. 6, 1979, pp. 5–21.
4. Graham Burchell, Colin Gordon and Peter Miller, eds, The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality, Chicago, 1991.
5. Susan Leigh Star and James R. Griesemer, ‘Institutional Ecology, “Translations” and Boundary Objects: Amateurs and Professionals in Berkeley's Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, 1907-39’, Social Studies of Science, Vol. 19, 1989, pp. 387–420.
6. Ann Laura Stoller, ‘Rethinking Colonial Categories: European Communities and the Boundaries of Rule’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol. 31, 1989, pp. 135–36.
7. N. Thomas, Colonialism's Culture: Anthropology, Travel and Government, Cambridge, 1994, p. 97.
8. S. Sangwan, ‘Indian Response to European Science and Technology 1750-1850’, British Journal of History of Science, Vol. 21, 1988, pp. 211–32.
9. S. Shapin, Social History of Truth: Civility and Science in 17th Century England, Chicago, 1994, p. xxii.
10. Jane Insley, ‘Making Mountains Out of Molehills? George Everest and Henry Barrow, 1830-39’, Indian Journal of History of Science, Vol. 30, No. 1, 1995, pp. 47–55.
11. B. Latour and S. Woolgar, Laboratory Life: The Construction of Scientific Facts, Princeton, 1986.
12. Liah Greenfeld, ‘Science in Seventeenth Century England’, Minerva, Vol. 25, 1987, p. 116.
13. Ann Secord, ‘Corresponding Interests: Artisans and Gentlemen in Nineteenth-century Natural History’, British Journal of History of Science, Vol. 27, 1994, pp. 383–408.
14. L.H. Brockway, Science and Colonial Expansion: The Role of the British Royal Botanic Garden, New York, 1979.
15. H. Stansfield, ‘The Missionary Botanists of Tranquebar: The Discovery of Classical Collections of Plants from Peninsular India’, Liverpool Bulletin, Vol. 6, No. 3, March 1957, pp. 19–42.
16. J.F. Royle, Essay on the Productive Resources of India, London, 1840, p. 49.
17. Colonel Kyd submitted his plans he gave assurance that ‘the charges attending such an institution ought not to exceed 150 or 200 rupees per month’. R. Kyd to Governor-General, 1 June 1786, The Dawson Turner Copies of Sir Joseph Banks's Correspondence (hereafter DTC), in the British Museum (Natural History), London (hereafter BM[NH]), Vol. 9, ff. 57-67.
18. N. Wallich, ‘Report on the Botanic Garden of Calcutta 1836-1840’, The Calcutta Journal of Natural History (hereafter CJNH), Vol. 2, 1842, pp. 288–94.
19. J. Banks to EIC, 2 August 1806, DTC, Vol. 16, ff. 299-303.
20. Lord Cornwallis to Charles Oakley, 5 July 1793, India Office Library and Records, London (hereafter IOLR), E/1/129, ff. 340.
21. D.E. Allen, ‘The Early Professionals in British Natural History’, in From Linnaeus to Darwin: Commentaries on the History of Biology and Geology, London, 1985, p. 9.
22. R. Desmond, The European Discovery of Indian Flora, New York, 1992, p. 64.
23. G. de Beer, The Sciences were Never at War, London, 1960.
24. J. Banks to CoD, 14 May 1793, IOLR, E/1/89, f. 186.
25. C. Smith to J. Banks, 24 August 1795, BM (NH), Banks Correspondence.
26. C. Smith to J. Banks, 17 September 1795, BM (NH), Banks Correspondence.
27. W. Roxburgh to J.E. Smith, 23 April 1798, Smith MS, Vol. 25, ff. 53-54.
28. CoD Despatch to Government of Bengal, 17 August 1803, IOLR, E/4/654, ff. 591-92.
29. W. Roxburgh to J. Banks, 13 July 1797, British Library, Add. MSS, 33980, f. 102.
30. J. Banks to W. Roxburgh, 9 August 1798, British Library, Add. MSS, 33980, f. 15.
31. F. Buchanan to J.E. Smith, 15 November 1797, Smith MSS, Vol. 2, ff. 202-5, LSA.
32. A.T. Gage, A History of the Linnaean Society of London, London, 1938.
33. F. Buchanan to J.E. Smith, 3 March 1802, Smith MSS, LSA.
34. F. Buchanan to J.E. Smith, 3 August 1806, Smith MSS, Vol. 2, ff. 216-17.
35. F. Buchanan to J.E. Smith, 4 November 1806, Smith MSS, Vol. 2, f. 218, LSA.
36. J. Banks to EIC, 2 August 1806, DTC, Vol. 16, ff. 299-303.
37. T. Hardwicke to J.E. Smith, 4 November 1807, in Lady Smith, ed., Memoirs and Correspondence of late Sir James Edward Smith, London, 1832, Vol. II, pp. 118–21.
38. M. Vicziany, ‘Imperialism, Botany and Statistics in Early Nineteenth-century India: The Survey of Francis Buchanan (1762-1829)’, Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 20, No. 4, 1986, pp. 625–60 (654).
39. F. Buchanan to J.E. Smith, 17 November 1813, Smith MSS, Vol. 2, ff. 224-25, LSA.
40. Ib Friis and Ole Hamann, ‘Nathaniel Wallich and the Flora of India’, Naturens Verden, 1976, pp. 393–408.
41. Roger de Candolle and Alan Radcliffe-Smith, ‘Nathaniel Wallich and the Herbanian of the Hon. E.I. Company’, Botanical Journal of the Linnaean Society, Vol. 83, 1981, pp. 325–45 (326).
42. N. Wallich to J. Banks, Calcutta, 24 July 1817, Banks Correspondence, Vol. 2, Kew Archive, London.
43. W. Carey to J. Fleming, 8 February 1816, and to H.T. Colebrooke, 8 February 1816, IOLR, E/1/133, ff. 75-76.
44. H.T. Colebrooke and J. Fleming to CoD, London, 14 January 1817, IOLR, E/1/133, ff. 73-74.
45. W. Carey to H.T. Colebrooke, 14 June 1817, IOLR, MSS Eur., B. 230.
46. J. Banks to CoD, 13 January 1817, IOLR, E/1/133, ff. 66-67.
47. N. Wallich to J. Banks, 24 July 1817, Banks Correspondence, Vol. 2, Kew Archive.
48. John Roxburgh. Desmond, The European Discovery, p. 82.
49. James Hare to C.M. Ricketts, Chief Secretary to the GOI, 11 June 1816, IOLR, E/1/140, f. 304.
50. C.M. Ricketts to James Hare, 29 June 1816, IOLR, E/1/140, f. 305.
51. T. Hardwick to J. Banks, 15 May 1817, British Library, Add. MSS, 9869, f. 21.
52. N. Wallich to J. Roxburgh, 23 March 1819, IOLR, E/1/140, f. 306.
53. J. Roxburgh to Governor-General, 31 March 1819, IOLR, E/1/140, f. 311.
54. N. Wallich to J. Roxburgh, 5 April 1819, IOLR, E/1/140, f. 308.
55. Lushington to J. Roxburgh, 16 April 1819, IOLR, E/1/140, f. 309.
56. G. King, ‘A Sketch of the History of Indian Botany’, Transactions of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1899, Section K, p. 908.
57. W.H. Lang, ‘William Griffith 1810-1845’, in F.W. Oliver, ed., Makers of British Botany: A Collection of Biographies by Living Botanists, Cambridge, 1913, pp. 178–91.
58. de Candolle and Radcliffe-Smith, ‘Nathaniel Wallich’, p. 333.
59. Alice M. Coats, The Quest for Plants: A History of the Horticultural Explorers, London, 1969, pp. 169–70.
60. W. Griffith to Munro, 20 May 1840, Munro Correspondence, ff. 111-14.
61. W. Griffith, Private Journal, 17 February 1836.
62. Desmond, The European Discovery, p. 92.
63. de Candolle and Radcliffe-Smith, ‘Nathaniel Wallich’, pp. 342–43.
64. CJNH, 1842, Vol. 2, p. 292.
65. J. McClelland to W. Swinson, 29 October 1838, Swinson Correspondence, LSA.
66. Rachel S. Voigt's Preface to the Catalogue of the Plants Cultivated in Botanic Garden Calcutta and in the Serampore Botanic Garden, Calcutta, 1845, pp. vii-x.
67. C. Huxley, Life and Letters of Joseph Dalton Hooker, London, 1918, Vol. 1, p. 234.
68. de Candolle and Radcliffe-Smith, ‘Nathaniel Wallich’, p. 344.
69. A. Grout, ‘Possessing the Earth: Geological Collections, Information and Education in India, 1800-1850’, in N. Crook, ed., The Transmission of Knowledge in South Asia: Essays on Education, Religion, History and Politics, Delhi, 1996, pp. 249–79.
70. Charles Wilkins, ‘Sketch of a Plan for an Oriental Museum proposed to be established at the India House’, in A.J. Arberry, ed., The India Office Library: A Historical Sketch, London, 1967, pp. 15–18.
71. A.J. Arberry, India Office Library, p. 23.
72. R. Kyd to Board of Control, 30 August 1786, DTC, Vol. 7, f. 40.
73. J. Banks to CoD, 12 February 1790, DTC, Vol. 7, ff. 31-33.
74. J. Banks to CoD, 17 January 1791, DTC, Vol. 7, ff. 303-5.
75. R. Kyd to Governor-General, 1 June 1786, Home Public Proceedings, 16 June 1786, No. 14, National Archives of India, New Delhi.
76. J.D. Hooker, ‘A Sketch of the Life and Labours of Sir William Jackson Hooker’, Annals of Botany, Vol. 16, No. 64, December 1902, pp. xliv-lv.
77. J. Banks to CoD, 12 February 1790, DTC, Vol. 7, ff. 31-33.
78. J. Banks to CoD, 17 January 1791, DTC, Vol. 7, ff. 303-5.
79. G. Valentia to J. Banks, 20 February 1803, DTC, Vol. 14, ff. 19-21.
80. J. Banks to CoD, 2 August 1806, DTC, Vol. 16, ff. 299-303.
81. J. Banks to CoD, 12 February 1790, DTC, Vol. 7, ff. 31-33.
82. T. Hardwick to W. Roxburgh, Cawnpore, 29 June 1800, IOLR, MSS Eur., D. 809.
83. W. Roxburgh, Samalcot, 25 February 1792, IOLR, MSS Eur., F 18/1, ff. 249-52.
84. F. Buchanan to J.E. Smith, 22 November 1806, LS, Smith Correspondence, Vol. 2, f. 219, LSA.
85. CJNH, Vol. 2, 1842, p. 292.
86. W.B. Turrill, Joseph Dalton Hooker: Botanist Explorer and Administrator, London, 1963, pp. 4–5.
87. J.D. Hooker, The Himalayan Journal, London, 1854, Vol. 1, pp. 4–5.
88. ‘Botanical Garden at Kew: Report of Professor Lindley’, p. 431.
89. D.E. Allen, The Naturalists in Britain: A Social History, Harmondsworth, 1976, p. 38.
90. David Allen contends that the Linnaean system only swept countries with ‘an ideological vacuum’and was resisted successfully in France and Britain. Allen, Naturalists in Britain, p. 40.
91. Keith Thomas, Man and the Natural World: Changing Attitudes in England 1500-1800, Harmondsworth, 1983 (reprint 1987), p. 65.
92. J. Brown, ‘Botany for Gentlemen: Erasmus, Darwin and The Loves of the Plants’, Isis, Vol. 80, 1989, p. 599.
93. A.G. Morton, John Hope 1725-1786: Scottish Botanist, Edinburgh, 1986, p. 5.
94. Basalla, ‘Spread of Western Science’, p. 618.
95. Roderick Murchison, ‘the general in science’.
96. Robert A. Stafford, Scientist of Empire: Sir Roderick Murchison, Scientific Exploration and Victorian Imperialism, Cambridge, 1989, p. 194.
97. Roy M. MacLeod, ‘On Visiting the “Moving Metropolis”: Reflections on the Architecture of Imperial Science’. Historical Records of Australian Science, Vol. 5, No. 3, 1982, p. 11.
98. W. Roxburgh to J.E. Smith, 27 October 1797, Smith MSS, Vol. 8, ff. 197-98, LSA.
99. F. Buchanan to J.E. Smith, 27 October 1815, Smith MSS, Vol. 2, ff. 228-29, LSA.
100. J.E. Smith, 8 July 1819, Smith MSS, Vol. 5, ff. 57-58, LSA.
101. F. Buchanan to J.E. Smith, 5 November 1825, Smith MSS, Vol. 2, ff. 251-52, LSA.
102. F. Buchanan to J.E. Smith, 25 May 1824, Smith MSS, Vol. 2, f. 250, LSA.
103. J. Banks to J.E. Smith, 25 December 1817, in J.E. Smith, ed., A Selection of the Correspondence of Linnaeus and Other Naturalists, from the Original Manuscripts, London, 1821, Vol. 2, pp. 577–78.
104. J.E. Smith to N.A. Wallich, 6 March 1820, in Smith, Memoirs and Correspondence of Smith, Vol. 2, pp. 253–61.
105. W. Jones to J. Banks, 18 October 1791, DTC, Vol. 7, ff. 267-70.
106. The Asiatic Researches, Vol. 2, 1790, p. 348.
107. The Asiatic Researches, Vol. 4, 1795, p. 237.
108. B.S. Cohn, ‘The Command of Language and the Language of Command’, in R. Guha, ed., Subaltern Studies, Vol. 4, Delhi, 1985, pp. 276, 283-84.
109. Desmond, The European Discovery, p. 96.
110. W. Griffith to Munro, Malacca, 9 November 1844, Munro Correspondence, ff. 111-14, Kew Archive.
111. Desmond, The European Discovery, pp. 95–96.
112. de Candolle and Radcliffe-Smith, ‘Nathaniel Wallich’, p. 343.
113. Desmond, The European Discovery, pp. 95–96.
114. N. Wallich to J.D. Hooker, 8 February 1845, Wallich Correspondence, Vol. I, 1841-49, Kew Archive.
115. Hooker, Himalayan Journal, Vols 2 and 3, p. 244.
116. Sally Gregary Kohlstedt, ‘Curiosities and Cabinets: Natural History Museum and Education on the Antebellum Campus’, Isis, Vol. 79, 1988, pp. 405–26 (416).
117. F. Buchanan to J.E. Smith, 14 February 1795, Smith Correspondence, Vol. 2, f. 199, LSA.
118. R. Martin, The History, Antiquities, Topography and Statistics of Eastern India, 3 Vols, London, 1833-38.
119. F. Buchanan to J.E. Smith, 7 November 1818, Smith MSS, Vol. 2, ff. 237-38, LSA.
120. F. Buchanan to J.E. Smith, 18 July 1819, Smith MSS, Vol. 2, ff. 239-40, LSA.
121. J. McClelland to W. Swinson, 29 October 1838, Swinson Correspondence, LSA.
122. Hardwicke to J.E. Smith, 4 November 1807, in Smith, Memoirs and Correspondence of Smith, Vol. 2, pp. 118–21.
123. Vicziany, ‘Imperialism, Botany and Statistics’, p. 645.
124. IOLR, MSS Eur. E 71.
125. A. Trotter to F. Buchanan, Calcutta, 14 January 1815 and 31 January 1815, GD 161/19/5, SRO.
126. F. Buchanan to A. Trotter, CBG, 10 February 1815, GD 161/19/5, SRO.
127. Lord Moira to Vice-President in Council, 5 January 1815, E/4/513, IOLR.
128. F. Buchanan to J.E. Smith, 23 April 1816, Smith MSS, Vol. 2, f. 230, LSA.
129. F. Buchanan to J.E. Smith, 24 November 1816, Smith MSS, Vol. 2, ff. 232-33, LSA.
130. F. Buchanan to J.E. Smith, 27 October 1815, LS, Smith Correspondence, Vol. 2, f. 228, LSA.
131. F. Buchanan to J.E. Smith, 23 April 1816, Smith MSS, Vol. 2, f. 230, LSA.
132. James Hare to Government of Bengal, 27 July 1816, F/4/559. IOLR.
133. John McClelland to W. Swinson, 29 October 1838, Swinson Correspondence, LSA.
134. Anne Secord, ‘Corresponding Interests’, p. 392.
135. F. Buchanan to N. Wallich, Edinburgh, 12 March 1819, BM(NH), MSS BUC, ff. 152-53.
136. ‘Obituary of Wallich’, Proceedings of the Linnaean Society, London, Vol. 2, 1855, pp. 314–17.
137. de Candolle and Radcliffe-Smith, ‘Nathaniel Wallich’, p. 330.
138. Wallich to the Court of Ava in 1826. BM(NH), MSS-CAN, ff. 1-8.
139. de Candolle and Radcliffe-Smith, ‘Nathaniel Wallich’.
140. Gleanings in Science, Vol. 1, 1829, p. 182n.
141. A. de Candolle to A.P. de Candolle, 17 July 1828, BM(NH), MSS-CAN, f. 3.
142. A. de Candolle to A.P. de Candolle, 29 April 1830, BM(NH), MSS-CAN, f. 5.
143. A. de Candolle to A.P. de Candolle, 13 May 1830, BM(NH), MSS-CAN, f. 7.
144. de Candolle and Radcliffe-Smith, ‘Nathaniel Wallich’, pp. 331–32.
145. N. Wallich to R. Graham, 14 May 1830, Indian Letters, 1818-31, Vol. 1, f. 77, Kew Archive.
146. N. Wallich to W.J. Hooker, 22 January 1831, Indian Letters, 1818-31, Vol. 1, f. 91.
147. N. Wallich to R. Graham, 14 May 1830, Indian Letters, 1818-31, Vol. 1, f. 77.
148. N. Wallich to W.J. Hooker, 26 May 1830, Indian Letters, 1818-31, Vol. 1, f. 79.
149. Lord Ellenborough to Earl of Carnarnan, 31 July 1830, Indian Letters, 1818-31, Vol. 1, f. 92C.
150. C.H. Phillip, The East India Company 1784-1834, Manchester, 1961, p. 261.
151. Joyce Brown, ‘Sir Proby Cautley (1802-71), a Pioneer of Indian Irrigation’, in A.R. Hall and R. Norman Smith, eds, History of Technology, London, 1978, pp. 59–60.
152. N. Wallich to W.J. Hooker, 22 November 1830, Indian Letters, 1818-31, Vol. 1, f. 86.
153. N. Wallich to W.J. Hooker, 14 February 1831, Indian Letters, 1818-31, Vol. 1, f. 92.
154. N. Wallich to W.J. Hooker, 7 December 1830, Indian Letters, 1818-31, Vol. 1, f. 87.
155. Lord Astley. N. Wallich to W.J. Hooker, 9 December 1830, Indian Letters, 1818-31, Vol. 1, f. 88.
156. de Condolle and Radcliffe-Smith, ‘Nathaniel Wallich’, pp. 341.
157. N. Wallich to W.J. Hooker, 14 March 1831, Indian Letters, 1818-31, Vol. 1, f. 92.
158. N. Wallich to W.J. Hooker, 17 March 1831, Indian Letters, 1818-31, Vol. 1, f. 93.
159. N. Wallich to A. Brongniart (of Paris), 27 March 1831, Natural History Museum, Paris, MS 1970, ff. 431-33.
160. W. Roxburgh to J.E. Smith, 23 April 1798, Smith MSS, Vol. 25, ff. 53-54, LSA.
161. W. Jones to J. Banks, 18 October 1791, DTC, Vol. 7, ff. 265-70.
162. de Candolle to his father Augustine Pyramus, 13 May 1830, BM(NH), MS. CNN, f. 3.
163. F. Buchanan to N. Wallich, 16 October 1821, BM(NH), MSS-BUC, f. 149.
164. S. Pumfrey, ‘Who did the work? Experimental philosophers and public demonstrators in Augustan England’, British Journal of History of Science, Vol. 28, Part 2, No. 97, June 1995, p. 151.
165. Grout, ‘Possessing the Earth’, p. 251.
166. M. Crosland, ‘The Development of a Professional Career in Science in France’, Minerva, Vol. 13, No. 4, 1975, pp. 510–13.
167. Allen, ‘The Early Professionals in British Natural History’, p. 3.
168. Pumfrey, ‘Who did the Work?’, p. 132.
169. Shapin, Social History of Truth, p. 94.
170. Pumfrey, ‘Who did the Work?’, p. 135.
171. Dēsmond, European Discovery, p. 50.
172. J. McClelland to W. Swinson, 29 October 1838, Swinson Correspondence, LSA.
173. F. Buchanan to Robert Brown, 5 March 1816, Autograph Collection, BM(NH).
174. Quarterly Review, Vol. 34, 1826, p. 161.
175. F. Buchanan to N. Wallich, 17 July 1816, BM(NH), MSS. BUC, ff. 147-48.
176. Vicziany, ‘Imperialism, Botany and Statistics’, pp. 655–56.
177. F. Buchanan to N. Wallich, Callander, 4 February 1817, BM(NH), MSS-BUC, f. 149.
178. F. Buchanan to J.E. Smith, 15 February 1820, Smith MSS, Vol. 2, f. 241, LSA.
179. Royle, Productive Resources of India, pp. 181–82.
180. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. 6, 1837, p. 494.
181. H. Falconer, Descriptive Catalogue of the Fossil Remains of Vertbrate from the Sewalik Hills, the Nerbudda, Perim Island, etc. in the Museum of the ASB, Calcutta, 1859, pp. 2, 4.
182. S. Sangwan, ‘Natural History in Colonial Context: Profit or Pursuit? British Botanical Enterprise in India 1778-1820’, in P. Petitjean and Catherine Jami, eds, Science and Empires, Boston, 1992, p. 284.
183. F. Buchanan to J.E. Smith, 3 March 1802, Smith MSS, Vol. 2, ff. 206-9, LSA.
184. N. Wallich to F. Buchanan, 25 February 1815, GD, 161/19/4, SRO.
185. Insley, ‘Making Mountains out of Molehills?’, p. 52.
186. CoD to Madras Govt., 16 February 1787, E/4/873, ff. 157-59, IOLR.
187. Insley, ‘Making Mountains out of Molehills ‘.
188. CoD to Madras Govt., 29 May 1844, E/4/778, f. 588, IOLR.
189. K. Marx, ‘The Government of India’, 5 July 1853, in Marx and Engels, On Colonialism, p. 64.
190. Desmond, European Discovery, p. 91.
191. Carey was, though, ‘put on a pension of 500 rupees a month’. W. Carey to W.J. Hooker, 16 June 1830, Hooker Correspondence, 1839-45, Kew Archive.
192. N. Wallich to N. Ward, 4 February 1834, N. Ward Correspondence, LSA.
193. B. Latour, Science in Action: How to Follow Scientists and Engineers through Society, Milton Keynes, 1987.
194. Bruno Latour and S. Woolgar, Laboratory Life: The Construction of Scientific Facts, Princeton, 1986.
195. Shapin, Social History of Truth, p. 107.
196. Bernard Barber, ‘Trust in Science’, Minerva, Vol. 25; 1987, pp. 123–34.
197. Charles Babbage, Reflections on the Decline of Science and on Some of its Causes, London, 1830.
198. Secord, ‘Corresponding Interests’.
199. Allen, ‘The Early Professionals in British Natural History’, p. 3.
200. Grout, ‘Possessing the Earth’, p. 265.
201. R.L. Bryant, ‘Political Ecology: An emerging research agenda in Third-World Studies’, Political Geography, Vol. 2, No. 1, January 1992, pp. 12–36 (18).
202. Star and Griesemer, ‘Institutional Ecology’.
203. F. Corbyn, in India Review and Journal of Foreign Sciences, Vol. 1, 1837, p. 461.
204. R.H. Grove, Green Imperialism: Colonial Expansion, Tropical Island Edens and the Origins of Environmentalism, 1600-1860, Delhi, 1995.
205. R.M. MacLeod, ‘The Ayrton Incident: A Commentary on the Relations of Science and Government in England, 1870-1873’, in A. Thackray and E. Mendelsohn, eds, Science and Values, Humanities Press, 1974, pp. 45–78.