Seawater Use and Desalination Technology

Treatise on Water Science

Volumn 4, Issue , 2011, Pages 73-109

  Gray, S ^a   Semiat, R ^b   Duke, M ^a   Rahardianto, A ^c   Cohen, Y ^c  

^a VICTORIA UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

^b TECHNION ISRAEL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY   (Israel)

^c UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Brackish water; Capacitive deionization; Concentrate disposal; Desalination; Distillation; Electrodialysis; Forward osmosis; MED; Membrane distillation; MSF; Pretreatment; Reverse osmosis; Seawater; Wastewater; Water quality

Indexed keywords

EID: 84992508921     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-444-53199-5.00077-4     Document Type: Chapter

References (145)

1. Adham S. Desalination: Applications, cost trends, and future issues of RO technology. AWA Membranes Specialty Conference II 1997, Australian Water Association, Melbourne, VIC, 21-23 February.
2. Agus E., Sedlak D.L. Formation and fate of chlorination by-products in reverse osmosis desalination systems. Water Research 2009, 44(5):1616-1626. (doi: 10.1016/j.watres.2009.11.015).
3. Antonov J.I., Locarnini R.A., Boyer T.P., Mishonov A.V., Garcia H.E. Tool for monitoring hydrophilic contaminants in water: Polar organic chemical integrative sampler (POCIS). World Ocean Atlas 2005, Volume 2: Salinity. NOAA Atlas NESDIS 62 2006, 182pp. US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, (CD-ROM). S. Levitus (Ed.).
4. Arroyo J., Shirazi S. Cost of Water Desalination in Texas, Analysis Paper 10-02; Texas Water Development Board 2006, http://www.twdb.state.tx.us/iwt/desal/docs.asp.
5. Asarno T. Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse 1998, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
6. Standard test method for silt density index (SDI) of water 1994, ASTM, D 4189-95.
7. Awerbuch L. Current status of seawater desalination technologies. IDA Desalination Seminar 1997, Cairo, Egypt, September.
8. Awerbuch L. Dual purpose power desalination/hybrid systems/energy and economics. IDA Desalination Seminar 1997, Cairo, Egypt, September.
9. Awerbuch L. Hybridization and dual purpose plant cost considerations. International Conference on Desalination Costing 2004, 204-221. Middle East Desalination Research Center, Limasol, Cyprus, December. R. Semiat, M. Chapman, K. Price, D. Hasson (Eds.).
10. AWWA Water Quality and Treatment: A Handbook of Community Water Supplies 1999, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY. 5th edn.
11. Bodell B.R. Silicone Rubber Vapor Diffusion in Saline Water Distillation 1963, US Pat. 285032, USA.
12. Boerlage S.F.E., Kennedy M., Aniye M.P., Schippers J.C. Applications of the MFI-UF to measure and predict particulate fouling in RO systems. Journal of Membrane Science 2003, 220:97-116.
13. Bolto B.A., Tran T., Hoang M. Membrane magic - desalting by forward osmosis. Water 2007, 34(2):46-48.
14. Borse P., Boake M., Bustamante H., Vitanage D., Nicholson C. RO membrane fouling by domestic and industrial wastewaters. Water 2009, 36(4):86-90.
15. Bremere I., Kennedy M., Michel P., van Emmerik R., Witkamp G.J., Schippers J. Controlling scaling in membrane filtration systems using a desupersaturation unit. Desalination 1999, 124:51-62.
16. Cath T.Y., Childress A.E., Elimelech M. Forward osmosis: Principles, applications, and recent developments. Journal of Membrane Science 2006, 281(1-2):70-87.
17. Reclamation: Managing water in the west, executive summary, Southern California regional brine concentrate management study - phase 1. US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation 2009, CH2M HILL, (accessed April 2010). http://www.usbr.gov/lc/socal/reports/brineconcentrate/1ExecSumm.pdf.
18. Chen J.C., Li Q., Elimelech M. In situ monitoring techniques for concentration polarization and fouling phenomena in membrane filtration. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science 2004, 107:83-108.
19. Cohen Y., Christofides P. Reverse Osmosis Field Study, Final Report, DWR-WRCD Agreement 46000534-03, Task Order No. 22 1999, California Department of Water Resources, 16 June 2010.
20. Committee on Advancing Desalination Technology Desalination: A National Perspective 2008, Water Science and Technology Board, National Research Council, National Academies Press, Washington, DC.
21. Crisp G. Perth provides world desalination sustainability model. Desalination and Water Reuse 2009, 19(3):16-21.
22. Curcio E., Drioli E. Membrane distillation and related operations - a review. Separation and Purification Reviews 2005, 34(1):35-86.
23. Davies K. Bundamba advanced water treatment plant: Water quality. Water 2009, 36(3):67-71.
24. Dotremont C., Kregersman B., Sih R., Lai K.C., Koh K., Seah H. Seawater desalination with Memstill Technology - a sustainable solution for the industry. Paper presented to IWA Membrane Technology Conference, Paper 190, 1-3 September 2009, International Water Association, Beijing, China.
25. Drak A., Glucina K., Busch M., Hasson D., Laîne J.-M., Semiat R. Laboratory technique for predicting the scaling propensity of RO feed waters. Desalination 2000, 132:233-242.
26. El Dessouky A.H.T. Review of VC fundamentals and costing. International Conference on Desalination Costing 2004, 79-94. Middle East Desalination Research Center, Limassol, Cyprus. R. Semiat, M. Chapman, K. Price, D. Hasson (Eds.).
27. El-Nashar A.M. Energy and economic aspects of cogeneration plants for power and fresh water production. IDA Desalination Seminar 1997, International Desalination Association, Cairo, Egypt, September.
28. Faigon M., Liberman B. Pressure center and boron removal in Ashkelon desalination plant. IDA World Congress on Desalination and Water Reuse (BAH03-181) 2003, International Desalination Association, Paradise Island, Bahamas.
29. Faller K.A. Reverse Osmosis and Nanofiltration 1999, AWWA Manual of Water Supply Practice, M46.
30. 3 solutions with carbon aerogel electrodes. Journal of the Electrochemical Society 1996, 143:159-169.
31. Gabelich C.J., Tran T.D., Suffet I.H. Electrosorption of inorganic salts from aqueous solution using carbon aerogels. Environmental Science and Technology 2002, 36:3010-3019.
32. Gabelich C.J., Williams M.D., Rahardianto A., Franklin J.C., Cohen Y. High-recovery reverse osmosis desalination using intermediate chemical demineralization. Journal of Membrane Science 2007, 301:131-141.
33. Gabelich C.J., Xu P., Cohen Y. Concentrate treatment for inland desalting. Sustainable Water For Future Use - Water Recycling Versus Desalination 2010, vol. 2:295-326. Elsevier, Amsterdam. 1st edn.
34. Gabelich C.J., Yun T.I., Bartels C.R., Green J.F. Nonthermal Technologies for Salinity Removal 2001, AWWA Research Foundation and the American Water Works Association, AWWA, Denver, CO.
35. Gilron J., Folkman Y., Savliev R., Waisman M., Kedem O. WAIV - wind aided intensified evaporation for reduction of desalination brine volume. Desalination 2003, 158:205-214.
36. Gilron J., Hasson D. Calcium-sulfate fouling of reverse-osmosis membranes - flux decline mechanism. Chemical Engineering Science 1987, 42:2351-2360.
37. New desalination capacity 1980-2009-chart 2009, Global Water Intelligence, (accessed April 2010). http://www.globalwaterintel.com/archive/10/10/analysis/new-desalination-capacity-1980-2009-chart.html.
38. Glueckstern P. History of desalination cost estimations. International Conference on Desalination Costing 2004, 1-17. Middle East Desalination Research Center, Limassol, Cyprus. R. Semiat, M. Chapman, K. Price, D. Hasson (Eds.).
39. Glueckstern P., Priel M. Optimization of boron removal in old and new SWRO systems. Desalination 2003, 156:219-228.
40. Graveland A., Vandijk J.C., Demoel P.J., Oomen J. Developments in water softening by means of pellet reactors. Journal American Water Works Association 1983, 75:619-625.
41. Grebenyuk V.D., Grebenyuk O.V. Electrodialysis: From an idea to realization. Russian Journal of Electrochemistry 2002, 38:806-809.
42. Greenberg G., Hasson D., Semiat R. Limits of RO recovery imposed by calcium phosphate precipitation. Desalination 2005, 183:273-288.
43. Hassan A.M., Al-Sofi M.A.K., Al-Amoudi A.S., et al. A new approach to membrane and thermal seawater desalination processes using nanofiltration membranes (Part 1). Desalination 1998, 118(1-3):35-51.
44. 4 scaling on RO membranes at various water recovery levels. Desalination 2001, 139:73-81.
45. 4 precipitation. Desalination 2003, 157:193-207.
46. Hasson D., Limoni-Relis B., Semiat R., Tob P. Fouling of RO membranes by phthalate esters contamination. Desalination 1996, 105:13-20.
47. 3 scale deposition by anti-scalants. Desalination 1998, 118:285-296.
48. Henriksen A. Laboratory studies on the removal of phosphates from sewage by the coagulation process (Part 2). Aquatic Sciences - Research Across Boundaries 1963, 25(2):380-396.
49. Hilal N., Al-Zoubi H., Darwish N.A., Mohammad A.W. Performance of nanofiltration membranes in the treatment of synthetic and real seawater. Separation Science and Technology 2007, 42(3):493-515.
50. Hoang M., Bolto B., Tran T. Desalination by capacitive deionisation. Water 2009, 36(1):132-135.
51. Huang H., Schwab K., Jacangelo J.G. Pretreatment for low pressure membranes in water treatment: A review. Environmental Science and Technology 2009, 43:3011-3019.
52. Hydranautics (2008) Chemical Pretreatment of RO and NF, Technical Application Bulletin No. 111, Review C, December, p. 10. Oceanside, CA: Hydranautics-Nitto Denko; http://www.membranes.com/docs/tab/TAB111.pdf.
53. Jarusutthirak C., Amy G., Croué J.P. Fouling characteristics of wastewater effluent organic matter (EfOM) isolates on NF and UF membranes. Desalination 2002, 145(1-3):247-255.
54. Jassim A.A., Ismail S. Fundamentals and costing of MSF. International Conference on Desalination Costing 2004, 63-68. Middle East Desalination Research Center, Limassol, Cyprus. R. Semiat, M. Chapman, K. Price, D. Hasson (Eds.).
55. Johnston W.R., Tanji K.K., Burns R.T. Drainage water disposal. Management of Agricultural Drainage Water Quality 1997, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, ch. 6. C.A. Madramootoo, W.R. Johnston, S. Lyman (Eds.).
56. Kenway S.J., Preiestley A., Cook S., et al. Energy use in the provision and consumption of urban water in Australia and New Zealand. CSIRO: Water for a Healthy Country National Research Flagship 2008, (accessed February 2010). http://www.csiro.au/resources/Urban-Water-Energy-Use.html.
57. Kepke J., Bays J., Lozier J. Concentrate treatment using wetlands. Water 2009, 36(7):75-82.
58. Kim M.-M., Au J., Rahardianto A., et al. Impact of conventional water treatment coagulants on mineral scaling in RO desalting of brackish water. Industrial and Engineering Chemical Research 2009, 48:3126-3135.
59. Kronenberg G. Ashkelon 100 MC/Year BOT project. International Conference on Desalination Costing 2004, Middle East Desalination Research Center, Limassol, Cyprus. R. Semiat, M. Chapman, K. Price, D. Hasson (Eds.).
60. Le Gouellec Y.A., Cornwell D.A., Cheng R.C., Tseng T.J., Vuong D.X. A novel approach to seawater desalination using dual-staged nanofiltration 2006, WWA Research Foundation, ISBN 978-1-58321-465-7 - Catalog No. 91118.
61. 4 scale formation mechanism in various nanofiltration modules. Journal of Membrane Science 1999, 163:63-74.
62. Lee L.Y., Ng H.Y., Ong S.L. Capacitive Deionisation for RO Brine Recovery in NEWater Production. Paper presented to Singapore International Water Week Convention 2008, International Water Association, Singapore, 23-27 June, paper IWA-565.
63. Leslie G., Myraed S. How will the use of renewable resources change the design of membrane systems for municipal water applications?. The Fifth Conference of the Aseanian Membrane Society 2009, 90-93. Aseanian Membrane Society, Kobe, Japan, 12-14 July.
64. Liberman B. Direct Osmosis Cleaning. US Pat. Appl. Publ. 15pp 2004, CODEN: USXXCO US 2004134521 A1 20040715.
65. Liberman B. Methods of direct osmosis membrane cleaning online for high SDI feed after pretreatment. IDA Workshop 2004, International Desalination Association, Tampa-San Diego, CA, 22-26 March.
66. 2 stripping for pretreating brackish and wastewater desalination feeds. Desalination 2008, 222:50-58.
67. 3 precipitation in continuous flow. Desalination and Water Treatment 2009, 1:17-24.
68. 3 scaling on RO membranes by trace amounts of zinc ions. Desalination 2005, 183:289-300.
69. Loeb S. The Loeb-Sourirajan membrane. How it came about. ACS Symposium Series, No. 153 1981, 1-9. American Chemical Society, Washington, DC. A.F. Turbak (Ed.).
70. Loeb S. Circumstances leading to the first municipal reverse osmosis desalination plant. Desalination 1984, 50:53-58.
71. Loeb S., Sourirajan S. Sea water demineralization by means of an osmotic membrane. Advances in Chemistry Series 1963, 38:117-132.
72. Lohman E. Yuma desalting plant: 2003. Southwest Hydrology 2003, 20-21. Woodhouse Press, Tuscan, AZ. B. Woodhouse (Ed.).
73. López-Ramírez J.A., Sahuquillo S., Sales D., Quiroga J.M. Pre-treatment optimisation studies for secondary effluent reclamation with reverse osmosis. Water Research 2003, 37:1177-1184.
74. Lyster E., Au J., Rallo R., Giralt F., Cohen Y. Coupled 3-D hydrodynamics and mass transfer analysis of mineral scaling-induced flux decline in a laboratory plate-and-frame reverse osmosis membrane module. Journal of Membrane Science 2009, 339:39-48.
75. Lyster E., Cohen Y. Numerical study of concentration polarization in a rectangular reverse osmosis membrane channel: Permeate flux variation and hydrodynamic end effects. Journal of Membrane Science 2007, 303:140-153.
76. Martinetti C.R., Childress A.E., Cath T.Y. High recovery of concentrated RO brines using forward osmosis and membrane distillation. Journal of Membrane Science 2009, 331(1-2):31-39.
77. Masaaki A., Toshiyuki K. Water treatment system and operation method for stable operation of the system using spiral type membrane module, Nitto Denko Corp 2001, Japanese Kokai Tokkyo Koho, Japan, CODEN: JKXXAF JP 2001239136 A2 20010904.
78. McCutcheon J.R., McGinnis R.L., Elimelech M. A novel ammonia-carbon dioxide forward (direct) osmosis desalination process. Desalination 2005, 174(1):1-11.
79. Mickley M.C. Membrane Concentrate Disposal: Practice and Regulation 2006, Mickley and Associates, US Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, CO.
80. Montgomery Watson Harza (Adham S, Burbano A, Chiu K, and Kumar M) (2006) Development of a reverse osmosis/nanofiltration (RO/NF) knowledgebase. Report of the California Energy Commission. Pasadena, CA: California Energy Commission.
81. Morse J.W., de Kanel J., Craig H.L. A literature review of the saturation state of seawater with respect to calcium carbonate and its possible significance for scale formation on OTEC heat exchangers. Ocean Engineering 1979, 6(3):297-315.
82. Mosset A., Bonnelye V., Petry M., Sanz M.A. The sensitivity of SDI analysis: From RO feed water to raw water. Desalination 2008, 222:17-23.
83. Nadav N. Boron removal from seawater reverse osmosis permeate utilizing selective ion exchange resin. Desalination 1999, 124:131-135.
84. Australian Drinking Water Guidelines. National Health and Medical Council, Agricultural and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, Australian Government 2004, National Water Quality Management Strategy, (accessed April 2010). http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/publications/.
85. Ophir A., Lokiec F. Review of MED Fundamentals and Costing. International Conference on Desalination Costing 2004, 69-78. Middle East Desalination Research Center, Limassol, Cyprus. R. Semiat, M. Chapman, K. Price, D. Hasson (Eds.).
86. Ophir A., Weinberg J. MED (multi-effect distillation) - desalination plants. A solution to the water problem in the Middle East. IDA World Congress on Desalination and Water Science, October 1997, International Desalination Association, Madrid.
87. Oren Y., Katz V., Daltrophe N.C. Improved compact accelerated precipitation softening (CAPS). Desalination 2001, 139:155-159.
88. Prats D., Chillon-Arias M.F., Rodriguez-Pastor M. Analysis of the influence of pH and pressure on the elimination of boron in reverse osmosis. Desalination 2000, 128:269-273.
89. Qin J.J., Kekre K.A., Tao G., et al. New option of MBR-RO process for the production of NEWater from domestic sewage. Journal of Membrane Science 2006, 272:70-77.
90. Rahardianto A., Gao J., Gabelich C.J., Williams M.D., Cohen Y. High recovery membrane desalting of low-salinity brackish water: Integration of accelerated precipitation softening with membrane RO. Journal of Membrane Science 2007, 289:123-137.
91. Rahardianto A., McCool B.C., Cohen Y. Reverse osmosis desalting of inland brackish water of high gypsum scaling propensity: Kinetics and mitigation of membrane mineral scaling. Environmental Science and Technology 2008, 42:4292.
92. Rahardianto A., McCool B.C., Cohen Y. Accelerated desupersaturation of reverse osmosis concentrate by chemically-enhanced seeded precipitation 2010, Desalination, (doi:10.1016/j.desal.2010.06.018).
93. Rahardianto A., Shih W.-Y., Lee R.-W., Cohen Y. Diagnostic characterization of gypsum scale formation and control in RO membrane desalination of brackish water. Journal of Membrane Science 2006, 279:655-668.
94. Rautenbach R., Linn T. High-pressure reverse osmosis and nanofiltration, a "zero discharge" process combination for the treatment of waste water with severe fouling/scaling potential. Desalination 1996, 105:63-70.
95. Reahl E. Reclaiming reverse osmosis blowdown with electrodialysis reversal. Desalination 1990, 78:77-89.
96. Reahl E. Half A Century of Desalination with Electrodialysis, Technical Paper TP1038EN 2006, GE Water and Process Technologies.
97. Redondo J., Busch M., De-Witte J.P. Boron removal from seawater using FILMTECTM high rejection SWRO membranes. Desalination 2003, 156:229-238.
98. Rodriguez-Pastor M., Ruiz A.F., Chillon M.F., Rico D.P. Influence of pH in the elimination of boron by means of reverse osmosis. Desalination 2001, 140:145-152.
99. Sagiv A., Avraham A., Carlos G.D., Semiat R. Osmotic backwash mechanism of Reverse Osmosis membranes. Journal of Membrane Science 2008, 32:225-233.
100. Sagiv A., Avraham N., Dosoretz C.G., Semiat R. Osmotic backwash mechanism of reverse osmosis membranes. Journal of Membrane Science 2008, 322:225-233.
101. Sagiv A., Semiat R. Analysis of parameters affecting boron permeation through reverse osmosis membranes. Journal of Membrane Science 2004, 243(1-2):79-87.
102. Sagiv A., Semiat R. Backwash of RO spiral wound membranes. Desalination 2005, 179:1-9.
103. Seckler D., Amarasinghe U., Molden D., de Silva R., Barker R. World water demand and supply, 1990 to 2025: Scenarios and Issues, International Water Management Institute, Research Report 19 2006, http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/IWMI_Research_Reports/PDF/PUB019/REPORT19.PDF.
104. Semiat R. Energy issues in desalination processes. Environmental Science and Technology 2008, 42(22):8193-8201.
105. Semiat R., Hasson D. Sea-water and brackish water desalination with membrane operations. Membrane Operations. Innovative Separations and Transformations 2009, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & CO, Weinheim, KGaA. ISBN: 978-3-527-32038-7. E. Drioli, L. Giorno (Eds.).
106. Semiat R., Hasson D., Zelmanov G., Hemo I. Threshold scaling limits of RO concentrates flowing in a long waste disposal pipeline. Water Science and Technology 2004, 49:211-219.
107. Semiat R., Sapojnick J., Hasson D. Energy aspects in osmotic processes. Desalination and Water Treatment 2010, 15:228-235.
108. Semiat R., Sutzkover I., Hasson D. Technique for evaluating silica scaling and its inhibition in RO desalting. Desalination 2001, 140:181-193.
109. Semiat R., Sutzkover I., Hasson D. Characterization of the effectiveness of silica anti-scalants. Desalination 2003, 159:11-19.
110. Semiat R., Sutzkover I., Hasson D. Scaling of RO membranes from silica supersaturated solutions. Desalination 2003, 157:169-191.
111. Shih W.-Y., Albrecht K., Glater J., Cohen Y. A dual-probe approach for evaluation of gypsum crystallization in response to antiscalant treatment. Desalination 2004, 169:213.
112. Shiklomanov I.A. World fresh water resources. Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Fresh Water Resources 1993, 13-34. Oxford University Press, New York, NY. P. Gleick (Ed.).
113. Sluys J.T.M., Verdoes D., Hanemaaijer J.H. Water treatment in a membrane-assisted crystallizer (MAC). Desalination 1996, 104:135-139.
114. Söhnel O., Garside J. Precipitation: Basic Principles and Industrial Applications 1992, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford.
115. Strathmann H. Assessment of electrodialysis water desalination process costs. International Conference on Desalination Costing 2004, 32-54. Middle East Desalination Research Center, Limassol, Cyprus. R. Semiat, M. Chapman, K. Price, D. Hasson (Eds.).
116. Sutzkover I., Hasson D., Semiat R. Simple technique for measuring the concentration polarization level in a reverse osmosis system. Desalination 2000, 131:117-127.
117. Taylor J.S., Jacobs E.P. Reverse osmosis and nanofiltration. Water Treatment: Membrane Processes 1996, 9.1-9.70. McGraw-Hill, New York, American Water Works Association Research Foundation, Lyonnaise des eaux, Water Research Commission of South Africa. L.S. Hager, V. Carroll (Eds.).
118. Thampy S.K., Rangarajan R., Indusekhar V.K. 25 years of electrodialysis experience at Central Salt & Marine Chemicals Research Institute, Bhavnagar, India. International Desalination and Water Reuse 1999, 9(2):45-49.
119. Uchymiak M., Bartman A.R., Daltrophe N., et al. Brackish water reverse osmosis (BWRO) operation in feed flow reversal mode using an ex situ scale observation detector (EXSOD). Journal of Membrane Science 2009, 341:60-66.
120. Uchymiak M., Rahardianto A., Lyster E., Glater J., Cohen Y. A novel RO ex situ scale observation detector (EXSOD) for mineral scale characterization and early detection. Journal of Membrane Science 2007, 291:86-95.
121. US Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) Desalting Handbook for Planners 2003, USBR, Washington, DC. 3rd edn.
122. van der Hoek J.P., Hofman J., Bonne P.A.C., Nederlof M.M., Vrouwenvelder H.S. RO treatment: Selection of a pretreatment scheme based on fouling characteristics and operating conditions based on environmental impact. Desalination 2000, 127:89-101.
123. Velter G. Ashkelon desalination project operations. International Conference on Desalination Costing 2004, Middle East Desalination Research Center, Limassol, Cyprus. R. Semiat, M. Chapman, K. Price, D. Hasson (Eds.).
124. Voutchkov N. Pre-treatment Technologies for Membrane Seawater Desalination 2008, (ISBN: 978-1-921335-05-1), Australian Water Association, St. Leonards, NSW.
125. Voutchkov N. Carlsbad's blueprint for green desalination. Water 2009, 21:22-23.
126. Voutchkov N., Semiat R. Seawater desalination. Advanced Membrane Technology and Applications 2008, 221-240. Wiley, Weinheim. N.N. Li, W.S. Winston Ho, A.G. Fane, T. Matsuura (Eds.).
127. Wang D., Chai T., Su B.W., Gao C.J. Study on seawater softening by nanofiltration membrane. Journal of Chemical Engineering of Chinese Universities 2009, 23:582-586.
128. Water Chemistry (2010) Hydranautics. (accessed April 2010). http://www.membranes.com/docs/papers/04_ro_water_chemistry.pdf.
129. Water Corporation (1999) Personal communication, Water quality data from wastewater treatment plants.
130. Welgemoed T.J., Schutte C.F. Capacitive deionisation technology™: An alternative desalination solution. Desalination 2005, 183:327-340.
131. Wen R., Deng S., Zhang Y. The removal of silicon and boron from ultra-pure water by electrodeionization. Desalination 2005, 181:153-159.
132. Weyl P.K. Recovery of Demineralized Water from Saline Waters, US Pat. 3340186 1967, Research Corporation, New York, USA.
133. Wilf M. Fundamentals and cost of RO-NF Technology. Proceedings of the International Conference on Desalination Costing 2004, 18-31. Limassol, Cyprus.
134. Wise B., Marker L., Mueller P. Membranes: Effectiveness of chlorine dioxide in sanitizing thin-film membrane systems. Ultrapure Water 2004, (September):13-16.
135. World Health Organisation (2010) Water scarcity. (accessed April 2010). http://www.who.int/features/factfiles/water/water_facts/en/index1.html.
136. Yang Q.F., Lisitsin D., Liu Y.Q., David H., Semiat R. Desupersaturation of RO concentrates by addition of coagulant and surfactant. Journal of Chemical Engineering of Japan 2007, 40:730-735.
137. Yang Q.F., Liu Y.Q., David H., Semiat R. Scaling salt removal by addition of inorganic particles. Journal of Chemical Engineering of Japan 2008, 41:6-12.
138. Zach-Maor A., Semiat R., Rahardianto A., Cohen Y., Wilson S., Gray S.R. Diagnostic analysis of RO desalting treated wastewater. Desalination 2008, 230:239-247.
139. Zhang J., Duke M., Ostarcevic E., Dow N., Gray S., Li J.-D. Performance of new generation membrane distillation membranes. Water Science and Technology: Water Supply 2009, 9(5):501-508.
140. Zhu A., Christofides P.D., Cohen Y. Effect of thermodynamic restriction on energy cost optimization of ro membrane water desalination. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Research 2008, 48(13):6010-6021.
141. Zhu A., Christofides P.D., Cohen Y. Energy consumption optimization of reverse osmosis membrane water desalination subject to feed salinity fluctuation. Industrial and Engineering Chemical Research 2009, 48:9581-9589.
142. Zhu A., Rahardianto A., Christofides P.D., Cohen Y. Reverse osmosis desalination with high permeability membranes - cost optimization and research needs. Desalination and Water Treatment 2010, 15:256-266.
143. Zou L., Qi D., Morris G. Using activated carbon electrode in electrosorptive deionisation of brackish water. Desalination 2008, 225:329-340.
144. - EarthLabs. http://www.serc.carleton.edu.
145. - IDE Technologies. http://www.ide-tech.com.