메뉴 건너뛰기




Volumn , Issue , 2013, Pages 45-64

Prenatal and maternal psychosocial stress in primates: Adaptive plasticity or vulnerability to pathology?

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords


EID: 84989195697     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-5605-6_3     Document Type: Chapter
Times cited : (4)

References (62)
  • 1
    • 33745793050 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Maternal behavior and maternal stress are associated with infant behavioral development
    • Bardi M, Huffman MA (2006) Maternal behavior and maternal stress are associated with infant behavioral development. Dev Psychobiol 48:1-9
    • (2006) Dev Psychobiol , vol.48 , pp. 1-9
    • Bardi, M.1    Huffman, M.A.2
  • 2
    • 24944476082 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Maternal care and development of stress responses in baboons
    • Bardi M, Bode AE, Ramirez SM (2005) Maternal care and development of stress responses in baboons. Am J Primatol 66:263-278
    • (2005) Am J Primatol , vol.66 , pp. 263-278
    • Bardi, M.1    Bode, A.E.2    Ramirez, S.M.3
  • 3
    • 70449469454 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Beyond diathesis-stress: Differential susceptibility to environmental influences
    • Belsky J, Pluess M (2009) Beyond diathesis-stress: differential susceptibility to environmental influences. Psychol Bull 135:885-908
    • (2009) Psychol Bull , vol.135 , pp. 885-908
    • Belsky, J.1    Pluess, M.2
  • 4
    • 0025206526 scopus 로고
    • Intergenerational transmission of maternal rejection rates among free-ranging rhesus monkeys
    • Berman CM (1990) Intergenerational transmission of maternal rejection rates among free-ranging rhesus monkeys. Anim Behav 39:329-337
    • (1990) Anim Behav , vol.39 , pp. 329-337
    • Berman, C.M.1
  • 5
    • 49849088311 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Maternal stress, glucocorticoids, and the maternal/fetal match hypothesis
    • Breuner C (2008) Maternal stress, glucocorticoids, and the maternal/fetal match hypothesis. Horm Behav 54:485-487
    • (2008) Horm Behav , vol.54 , pp. 485-487
    • Breuner, C.1
  • 6
    • 78649917674 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The trans-generational influence of maternal care on offspring gene expression and behavior in rodents
    • Maestripieri D, Mateo JM (eds) The University of Chicago Press, Chicago
    • Champagne FA, Curley JP (2009) The trans-generational influence of maternal care on offspring gene expression and behavior in rodents. In: Maestripieri D, Mateo JM (eds) Maternal effects in mammals. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp 182-202
    • (2009) Maternal effects in mammals , pp. 182-202
    • Champagne, F.A.1    Curley, J.P.2
  • 7
    • 77958589091 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Challenges to maternal wellbeing during pregnancy impact temperament, attention, and neuromotor responses in the infant rhesus monkey
    • Coe CL, Lubach GR, Crispen HR, Shirtcliff EA, Schneider ML (2010) Challenges to maternal wellbeing during pregnancy impact temperament, attention, and neuromotor responses in the infant rhesus monkey. Dev Psychobiol 52:625-637
    • (2010) Dev Psychobiol , vol.52 , pp. 625-637
    • Coe, C.L.1    Lubach, G.R.2    Crispen, H.R.3    Shirtcliff, E.A.4    Schneider, M.L.5
  • 8
    • 84865602907 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Fetal programming by maternal stress: Insights from a conflict perspective
    • Del Giudice M (2012) Fetal programming by maternal stress: insights from a conflict perspective. Psychoneuroendocrinology 37:1614-1629
    • (2012) Psychoneuroendocrinology , vol.37 , pp. 1614-1629
    • Del Giudice, M.1
  • 11
    • 0032980499 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Can excess glucocorticoid, in utero, predispose to cardiovascular and metabolic disease in middle age
    • Dodic M, Peers A, Coghlan JP, Wintour M (1999) Can excess glucocorticoid, in utero, predispose to cardiovascular and metabolic disease in middle age? Trends Endocrinol Metab 10:86-91
    • (1999) Trends Endocrinol Metab , vol.10 , pp. 86-91
    • Dodic, M.1    Peers, A.2    Coghlan, J.P.3    Wintour, M.4
  • 13
    • 77956735405 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Individual differences in maternal styles: Causes and consequences for mothers and offspring
    • Fairbanks LA (1996) Individual differences in maternal styles: causes and consequences for mothers and offspring. Adv Study Behav 25:579-611
    • (1996) Adv Study Behav , vol.25 , pp. 579-611
    • Fairbanks, L.A.1
  • 14
    • 0024121382 scopus 로고
    • Long-term effects of early mothering behavior on responsiveness to the environment in vervet monkeys
    • Fairbanks LA, McGuire MT (1988) Long-term effects of early mothering behavior on responsiveness to the environment in vervet monkeys. Dev Psychobiol 21:711-724
    • (1988) Dev Psychobiol , vol.21 , pp. 711-724
    • Fairbanks, L.A.1    McGuire, M.T.2
  • 15
    • 0029510457 scopus 로고
    • Maternal condition and the quality of maternal care in vervet monkeys
    • Fairbanks LA, McGuire MT (1995) Maternal condition and the quality of maternal care in vervet monkeys. Behaviour 132:733-754
    • (1995) Behaviour , vol.132 , pp. 733-754
    • Fairbanks, L.A.1    McGuire, M.T.2
  • 16
    • 79957475176 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Evolutionary functions of early social modulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis development in humans
    • Flinn MV, Nepomnaschy PA, Muehlenbein MP, Ponzi D (2011) Evolutionary functions of early social modulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis development in humans. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 35:1611-1629
    • (2011) Neurosci Biobehav Rev , vol.35 , pp. 1611-1629
    • Flinn, M.V.1    Nepomnaschy, P.A.2    Muehlenbein, M.P.3    Ponzi, D.4
  • 17
    • 79952683347 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Prenatal stress and the origins of psychopathology: An evolutionary perspective
    • Glover V (2011) Prenatal stress and the origins of psychopathology: an evolutionary perspective. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 52:356-367
    • (2011) J Child Psychol Psychiatry , vol.52 , pp. 356-367
    • Glover, V.1
  • 19
    • 4544366928 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Living with the past: Evolution, development, and patterns of disease
    • Gluckman PD, Hanson MA (2004) Living with the past: evolution, development, and patterns of disease. Science 305:1733-1736
    • (2004) Science , vol.305 , pp. 1733-1736
    • Gluckman, P.D.1    Hanson, M.A.2
  • 20
    • 84959336953 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Parental influences on offspring personality traits in oviparous and placental vertebrates
    • Carere C, Maestripieri D (eds) The University of Chicago Press, Chicago
    • Groothuis TTG, Maestripieri D (2013). Parental influences on offspring personality traits in oviparous and placental vertebrates. In: Carere C, Maestripieri D (eds) Animal personalities: behavior, physiology, and evolution. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago
    • (2013) Animal personalities: Behavior, physiology, and evolution
    • Groothuis, T.T.G.1    Maestripieri, D.2
  • 21
    • 0019463909 scopus 로고
    • Behavioral and pituitary-adrenal responses during a prolonged separation period in infant rhesus macaques
    • Gunnar MR, Gonzalez C, Goodlin C, Levine S (1981) Behavioral and pituitary-adrenal responses during a prolonged separation period in infant rhesus macaques. Psychoneuroendocrinology 6:65-75
    • (1981) Psychoneuroendocrinology , vol.6 , pp. 65-75
    • Gunnar, M.R.1    Gonzalez, C.2    Goodlin, C.3    Levine, S.4
  • 22
    • 0001417096 scopus 로고
    • Mother-offspring conflict in vervet monkeys: Variation in response to ecological conditions
    • Hauser MD, Fairbanks LA (1988) Mother-offspring conflict in vervet monkeys: variation in response to ecological conditions. Anim Behav 36:802-813
    • (1988) Anim Behav , vol.36 , pp. 802-813
    • Hauser, M.D.1    Fairbanks, L.A.2
  • 23
    • 0347320657 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Maternal corticosterone is transferred to avian yolk and may alter offspring growth and adult phenotype
    • Hayward LS, Wingfield JC (2004) Maternal corticosterone is transferred to avian yolk and may alter offspring growth and adult phenotype. Gen Comp Endocrinol 135:365-371
    • (2004) Gen Comp Endocrinol , vol.135 , pp. 365-371
    • Hayward, L.S.1    Wingfield, J.C.2
  • 24
    • 13444309481 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Fetal origins of developmental plasticity: Animal models of induced life history variation
    • Horton TH (2005) Fetal origins of developmental plasticity: animal models of induced life history variation. Am J Hum Biol 7:34-43
    • (2005) Am J Hum Biol , vol.7 , pp. 34-43
    • Horton, T.H.1
  • 26
    • 0036627586 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The role of prenatal stress in the etiology of developmental behavioural disorders
    • Kofman O (2002) The role of prenatal stress in the etiology of developmental behavioural disorders. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 26:457-470
    • (2002) Neurosci Biobehav Rev , vol.26 , pp. 457-470
    • Kofman, O.1
  • 27
    • 77950629125 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Early experience and the development of stress reactivity and regulation in children
    • Loman MM, Gunnar MR (2010) Early experience and the development of stress reactivity and regulation in children. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 34:867-876
    • (2010) Neurosci Biobehav Rev , vol.34 , pp. 867-876
    • Loman, M.M.1    Gunnar, M.R.2
  • 28
    • 53149153876 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The adaptive value of stress-induced phenotypes: Effects of maternally derived corticosterone on sex-biased investment, cost of reproduction, and maternal fitness
    • Love OP, Williams TD (2008) The adaptive value of stress-induced phenotypes: effects of maternally derived corticosterone on sex-biased investment, cost of reproduction, and maternal fitness. Am Nat 172:135-149
    • (2008) Am Nat , vol.172 , pp. 135-149
    • Love, O.P.1    Williams, T.D.2
  • 30
    • 33750954402 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Developmental plasticity of HPA and fear responses in rats: A critical review of the maternal mediation hypothesis
    • Macn S, Würbel H (2006) Developmental plasticity of HPA and fear responses in rats: a critical review of the maternal mediation hypothesis. Horm Behav 50:667-680
    • (2006) Horm Behav , vol.50 , pp. 667-680
    • Macn, S.1    Würbel, H.2
  • 31
    • 33845741595 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Effects of variation in postnatal maternal environment on maternal behaviour and fear and stress responses in rats
    • Macn S, Würbel H (2007) Effects of variation in postnatal maternal environment on maternal behaviour and fear and stress responses in rats. Anim Behav 73:171-184
    • (2007) Anim Behav , vol.73 , pp. 171-184
    • Macn, S.1    Würbel, H.2
  • 32
    • 0031970759 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Parenting styles of abusive mothers in group-living rhesus macaques
    • Maestripieri D (1998) Parenting styles of abusive mothers in group-living rhesus macaques. Anim Behav 55:1-11
    • (1998) Anim Behav , vol.55 , pp. 1-11
    • Maestripieri, D.1
  • 33
    • 0036069762 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Parent-offspring conflict in primates
    • Maestripieri D (2002) Parent-offspring conflict in primates. Int J Primatol 23:923-951
    • (2002) Int J Primatol , vol.23 , pp. 923-951
    • Maestripieri, D.1
  • 34
    • 22144469074 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Early experience affects the intergenerational transmission of infant abuse in rhesus monkeys
    • Maestripieri D (2005) Early experience affects the intergenerational transmission of infant abuse in rhesus monkeys. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 102:9726-9729
    • (2005) Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A , vol.102 , pp. 9726-9729
    • Maestripieri, D.1
  • 35
    • 75449116231 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Maternal influences on offspring growth, reproduction, and behavior in primates
    • Maestripieri D, Mateo JM (eds) The University of Chicago Press, Chicago
    • Maestripieri D (2009) Maternal influences on offspring growth, reproduction, and behavior in primates. In: Maestripieri D, Mateo JM (eds) Maternal effects in mammals. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp 256-291
    • (2009) Maternal effects in mammals , pp. 256-291
    • Maestripieri, D.1
  • 36
    • 0040658507 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Risk factors for infant abuse and neglect in rhesus monkeys
    • Maestripieri D, Carroll KA (1998a) Risk factors for infant abuse and neglect in rhesus monkeys. Psychol Sci 9:143-145
    • (1998) Psychol Sci , vol.9 , pp. 143-145
    • Maestripieri, D.1    Carroll, K.A.2
  • 37
    • 0001603623 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Behavioral and environmental correlates of infant abuse in group-living pigtail macaques
    • Maestripieri D, Carroll KA (1998b) Behavioral and environmental correlates of infant abuse in group-living pigtail macaques. Infant Behav Dev 21:603-612
    • (1998) Infant Behav Dev , vol.21 , pp. 603-612
    • Maestripieri, D.1    Carroll, K.A.2
  • 39
    • 0030897727 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Infant abuse runs in families of group-living pigtail macaques
    • Maestripieri D, Wallen K, Carroll KA (1997) Infant abuse runs in families of group-living pigtail macaques. Child Abuse Negl 21:465-471
    • (1997) Child Abuse Negl , vol.21 , pp. 465-471
    • Maestripieri, D.1    Wallen, K.2    Carroll, K.A.3
  • 40
    • 0032900682 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Consistency and change in the behavior of rhesus macaque abusive mothers with successive infants
    • Maestripieri D, Tomaszycki M, Carroll KA (1999) Consistency and change in the behavior of rhesus macaque abusive mothers with successive infants. Dev Psychobiol 34:29-35
    • (1999) Dev Psychobiol , vol.34 , pp. 29-35
    • Maestripieri, D.1    Tomaszycki, M.2    Carroll, K.A.3
  • 41
    • 33750048745 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Early maternal rejection affects the development of monoaminergic systems and adult abusive parenting in rhesus macaques
    • Maestripieri D, Higley JD, Lindell SG, Newman TK, McCormack KM, Sanchez MM (2006a) Early maternal rejection affects the development of monoaminergic systems and adult abusive parenting in rhesus macaques. Behav Neurosci 120:1017-1024
    • (2006) Behav Neurosci , vol.120 , pp. 1017-1024
    • Maestripieri, D.1    Higley, J.D.2    Lindell, S.G.3    Newman, T.K.4    McCormack, K.M.5    Sanchez, M.M.6
  • 42
    • 33750617315 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Influence of parenting style on the offspring's behavior and CSF monoamine metabolites levels in crossfostered and noncrossfostered female rhesus macaques
    • Maestripieri D, McCormack K, Lindell SG, Higley JD, Sanchez MM (2006b) Influence of parenting style on the offspring's behavior and CSF monoamine metabolites levels in crossfostered and noncrossfostered female rhesus macaques. Behav Brain Res 175:90-95
    • (2006) Behav Brain Res , vol.175 , pp. 90-95
    • Maestripieri, D.1    McCormack, K.2    Lindell, S.G.3    Higley, J.D.4    Sanchez, M.M.5
  • 43
    • 33947517087 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Intergenerational transmission of maternal behavior in rhesus monkeys and its underlying mechanisms
    • Maestripieri D, Lindell SG, Higley JD (2007) Intergenerational transmission of maternal behavior in rhesus monkeys and its underlying mechanisms. Dev Psychobiol 49:165-171
    • (2007) Dev Psychobiol , vol.49 , pp. 165-171
    • Maestripieri, D.1    Lindell, S.G.2    Higley, J.D.3
  • 44
    • 60249091231 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Mother-infant interactions in free-ranging rhesus macaques: Relationships between physiological and behavioral variables
    • Maestripieri D, Hoffman CL, Anderson GM, Carter CS, Higley JD (2009) Mother-infant interactions in free-ranging rhesus macaques: relationships between physiological and behavioral variables. Physiol Behav 96:613-619
    • (2009) Physiol Behav , vol.96 , pp. 613-619
    • Maestripieri, D.1    Hoffman, C.L.2    Anderson, G.M.3    Carter, C.S.4    Higley, J.D.5
  • 45
    • 78649975043 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Maternal influences on development, social relationships, and survival behaviors
    • Maestripieri D, Mateo JM (eds) The University of Chicago Press, Chicago
    • Mateo JM (2009) Maternal influences on development, social relationships, and survival behaviors. In: Maestripieri D, Mateo JM (eds) Maternal effects in mammals. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp 133-158
    • (2009) Maternal effects in mammals , pp. 133-158
    • Mateo, J.M.1
  • 46
    • 63649130425 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Serotonin transporter gene variation, infant abuse, and responsiveness to stress in rhesus macaque mothers and infants
    • McCormack K, Newman TK, Higley JD, Maestripieri D, Sanchez MM (2009) Serotonin transporter gene variation, infant abuse, and responsiveness to stress in rhesus macaque mothers and infants. Horm Behav 55:538-547
    • (2009) Horm Behav , vol.55 , pp. 538-547
    • McCormack, K.1    Newman, T.K.2    Higley, J.D.3    Maestripieri, D.4    Sanchez, M.M.5
  • 49
    • 79957527951 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Identifying key features of early stressful experiences that produce stress vulnerability and resilience in primates
    • Parker KJ, Maestripieri D (2011) Identifying key features of early stressful experiences that produce stress vulnerability and resilience in primates. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 35:1466-1483
    • (2011) Neurosci Biobehav Rev , vol.35 , pp. 1466-1483
    • Parker, K.J.1    Maestripieri, D.2
  • 50
    • 33644514298 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Maternal mediation, stress inoculation, and the development of neuroendocrine stress resistance in primates
    • Parker KJ, Buckmaster CL, Sundlass K, Schatzberg AF, Lyons DM (2006) Maternal mediation, stress inoculation, and the development of neuroendocrine stress resistance in primates. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 103:3000-3005
    • (2006) Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A , vol.103 , pp. 3000-3005
    • Parker, K.J.1    Buckmaster, C.L.2    Sundlass, K.3    Schatzberg, A.F.4    Lyons, D.M.5
  • 51
    • 0002085601 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Maternal and paternal effects in birds
    • Mousseau TA, Fox CW (eds) Oxford University Press, Oxford
    • Price T (1998) Maternal and paternal effects in birds. In: Mousseau TA, Fox CW (eds) Maternal effects as adaptations. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 202-226
    • (1998) Maternal effects as adaptations , pp. 202-226
    • Price, T.1
  • 52
    • 77950924671 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Effects of early maternal abuse and sex on ACTH and cortisol responses to the CRH challenge during the first 3 years of life in group-living rhesus monkeys
    • Sanchez MM, McCormack K, Grand AP, Fulks R, Graff A, Maestripieri D (2010) Effects of early maternal abuse and sex on ACTH and cortisol responses to the CRH challenge during the first 3 years of life in group-living rhesus monkeys. Dev Psychopathol 22:45-53
    • (2010) Dev Psychopathol , vol.22 , pp. 45-53
    • Sanchez, M.M.1    McCormack, K.2    Grand, A.P.3    Fulks, R.4    Graff, A.5    Maestripieri, D.6
  • 53
    • 0034989995 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Early maternal rejection and later social anxiety in juvenile and adult Japanese macaques
    • Schino G, Speranza L, Troisi A (2001) Early maternal rejection and later social anxiety in juvenile and adult Japanese macaques. Dev Psychobiol 38:186-190
    • (2001) Dev Psychobiol , vol.38 , pp. 186-190
    • Schino, G.1    Speranza, L.2    Troisi, A.3
  • 54
    • 0027585966 scopus 로고
    • Repeated social stress during pregnancy impairs neuromotor development of the primate infant
    • Schneider ML, Coe CL (1993) Repeated social stress during pregnancy impairs neuromotor development of the primate infant. J Dev Behav Pediatr 14:81-87
    • (1993) J Dev Behav Pediatr , vol.14 , pp. 81-87
    • Schneider, M.L.1    Coe, C.L.2
  • 55
    • 82755170642 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Resilience: A silver lining to experiencing adverse life events
    • Seery MD (2011) Resilience: a silver lining to experiencing adverse life events? Curr Dir Psychol Sci 20:390-394
    • (2011) Curr Dir Psychol Sci , vol.20 , pp. 390-394
    • Seery, M.D.1
  • 56
    • 0011815826 scopus 로고
    • Effects of early experience on the behaviour of yearling rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) in the presence of a strange object: Classification and correlation approaches
    • Simpson MJA (1985) Effects of early experience on the behaviour of yearling rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) in the presence of a strange object: classification and correlation approaches. Primates 26:57-72
    • (1985) Primates , vol.26 , pp. 57-72
    • Simpson, M.J.A.1
  • 57
    • 0026310246 scopus 로고
    • Predicting infant enterprise from early relationships in rhesus macaques
    • Simpson MJA, Datta SB (1990) Predicting infant enterprise from early relationships in rhesus macaques. Behaviour 116:42-63
    • (1990) Behaviour , vol.116 , pp. 42-63
    • Simpson, M.J.A.1    Datta, S.B.2
  • 58
    • 0002399023 scopus 로고
    • Prior experience of risk and individual differences in enterprise shown by rhesus monkey infants in the second half of their first year
    • Simpson MJA, Gore MA, Janus M, Rayment FDG (1989) Prior experience of risk and individual differences in enterprise shown by rhesus monkey infants in the second half of their first year. Primates 30:493-509
    • (1989) Primates , vol.30 , pp. 493-509
    • Simpson, M.J.A.1    Gore, M.A.2    Janus, M.3    Rayment, F.D.G.4
  • 59
    • 33847765900 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Antenatal maternal stress and long-term effects on child neurodevelopment: How and why
    • Talge NM, Neal C, Glover V et al (2007) Antenatal maternal stress and long-term effects on child neurodevelopment: how and why? J Child Psychol Psychiatry 48:245-261
    • (2007) J Child Psychol Psychiatry , vol.48 , pp. 245-261
    • Talge, N.M.1    Neal, C.2    Glover, V.3
  • 60
    • 79959975871 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A theoretical model of the evolution of maternal effects under parentoffspring conflict
    • Uller T, Pen I (2011) A theoretical model of the evolution of maternal effects under parentoffspring conflict. Evolution 65:2075-2084
    • (2011) Evolution , vol.65 , pp. 2075-2084
    • Uller, T.1    Pen, I.2
  • 62
    • 0035180462 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Prenatal stress, glucocorticoids, and the programming of the brain
    • Welberg LA, Seckl JR (2001) Prenatal stress, glucocorticoids, and the programming of the brain. J Neuroendocrinol 132:113-128
    • (2001) J Neuroendocrinol , vol.132 , pp. 113-128
    • Welberg, L.A.1    Seckl, J.R.2


* 이 정보는 Elsevier사의 SCOPUS DB에서 KISTI가 분석하여 추출한 것입니다.