Disturbance intensity and dominant cover type influence rate of boreal soil carbon change: A Canadian multi-regional analysis

Forest Ecology and Management

Volumn 381, Issue , 2016, Pages 48-62

  Kishchuk, B E ^a   Morris, D M ^b   Lorente, M ^c   Keddy, T ^a   Sidders, D ^a   Quideau, S ^d   Thiffault, E ^e   Kwiaton, M ^b   Maynard, D ^a  

^a LAURENTIAN FORESTRY CENTRE   (Canada)

^b ONTARIO MINISTRY OF NATURAL RESOURCES   (Canada)

^c Center for Forest Research   (Canada)

^d UNIVERSITY OF ALBERTA   (Canada)

^e UNIVERSITÉ LAVAL   (Canada)

Author keywords

Boreal forest; Disturbance effects; Multiple disturbances; Recovery patterns; Soil carbon; Tree species effects

Indexed keywords

CLIMATE CHANGE; ECOLOGY; ECOSYSTEMS; FLOORS; HARVESTING; LAKES; REGIONAL PLANNING; SOILS;

BOREAL FORESTS; DISTURBANCE EFFECTS; MULTIPLE DISTURBANCE; SOIL CARBON; TREE SPECIES EFFECTS;

FORESTRY;

ANTHROPOGENIC EFFECT; BIOME; BOREAL FOREST; CARBON SEQUESTRATION; CARBON SINK; CLEARCUTTING; CLIMATE CHANGE; CONIFEROUS TREE; DECIDUOUS FOREST; DISTURBANCE; FOREST COVER; FOREST ECOSYSTEM; FOREST FLOOR; FOREST MANAGEMENT; MANAGEMENT PRACTICE; SOIL CARBON;

BOREAL SHIELD; CANADA;

CONIFEROPHYTA;

EID: 84988027398     PISSN: 03781127     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.foreco.2016.09.002     Document Type: Article

References (109)

1. Alberta Environment and Sustainable Resource Development (AESRD), Alberta Timber Harvest Planning and Operating Ground Rules Framework for Renewal. 2012, Queen's Printer for Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta.
2. Alriksson, A., Eriksson, H.M., Variations in mineral nutrient and C distribution in the soil and vegetation compartments of five temperate tree species in NE Sweden. For. Ecol. Manage. 108 (1998), 261–273.
3. Berg, B., Litter decomposition and organic matter turnover in northern forest soils. For. Ecol. Manage. 133 (2000), 13–22.
4. Berger, T.W., Neubauer, C., Glatzel, G., Factors controlling soil carbon and nitrogen stores in pure stands of Norway spruce (Picea abies) and mixed stands in Austria. For. Ecol. Manage. 159 (2002), 3–14.
5. Betts, R.A., Offset of the potential carbon sink from boreal forestation by decreases in surface albedo. Nature 408 (2000), 187–190.
6. Binkley, D., Fisher, R.F., Ecology and Management of Forest Soils. 2013, Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester.
7. Birdsey, R., Pregitzer, K., Lucier, A., Forest carbon management in the United States. J. Environ. Qual. 35 (2006), 1461–1469.
8. Bradford, J.B., Fraver, S., Milo, A.M., D'Amato, A.W., Palik, B., Shinneman, D.J., Effects of multiple interacting disturbances and salvage logging on forest carbon stocks. For. Ecol. Manage. 267 (2012), 209–214.
9. Bradshaw, C.J.A., Warkentin, I.G., Global estimates of boreal forest carbon stocks and flux. Global Planet. Change 128 (2015), 24–30.
10. Bradshaw, C.J.A., Warkentin, I.G., Sodhi, N.S., Urgent preservation of boreal carbon stocks and biodiversity. Trends Ecol. Evol. 24 (2009), 541–548.
11. Brandt, J.P., Flannigan, M.D., Maynard, D.G., Thompson, I.D., Volney, W.J.A., An introduction to Canada's boreal zone: ecosystem processes, health, sustainability, and environmental issues. Environ. Rev. 21 (2013), 207–226.
12. Brassard, B.W., Chen, H.Y.H., Cavard, X., Laganière, J., Reich, P.B., Bergeron, Y., Paré, D., Yuan, Z., Tree species diversity increases fine root productivity between mixed- and single-species stands. Funct. Ecol. 25 (2013), 238–246.
13. Brais, S., Harvey, B.D., Bergeron, Y., Messier, C., Greene, D., Belleau, A., Paré, D., Testing forest ecosystem management in boreal mixedwoods of northwestern Quebec: initial response of aspen stands to different levels of harvesting. Can. J. For. Res. 34 (2004), 431–446.
14. Buma, B., Wessman, C.A., Disturbance interactions can impact resilience mechanisms of forests. Ecosphere, 2, 2011, art64.
15. Buma, B., Wessman, C.A., Differential species responses to compounded perturbations and implications for landscape heterogeneity and resilience. For. Ecol. Manage. 266 (2012), 25–33.
16. Canadian Standards Group, CSA Z809–16 Sustainable Forest Management. 2016.
17. Carrasco, J.J., Neff, J.C., Harden, J.W., Modeling physical and biogeochemical controls over carbon accumulation in a boreal forest soil. J. Geophys. Res., 111, 2006, G02004.
18. Castellano, M.J., Mueller, K.E., Olk, D.C., Sawyer, J.E., Six, J., Integrating plant litter quality, soil organic matter stabilization, and the carbon saturation concept. Glob. Change Biol. 21 (2015), 3200–3209.
19. Certini, G., Effects of fire on properties of forest soils: a review. Oecologia 143 (2005), 1–10.
20. Clarke, N., Gundersen, P., Jönsson-Belyazid, U., Kjǿnaas, O.J., Persson, T., Sigurdsson, B.D., Stupak, I., Vesterdal, L., Influence of different tree-harvesting intensities on forest soil carbon stocks in boreal and northern temperate forest ecosystems. For. Ecol. Manage. 351 (2015), 9–19.
21. Cotrufo, M.F., Soong, J.L., Horton, A.J., Campbell, E.E., Haddix, M.L., Wall, D.H., Parton, A.J., Formation of soil organic matter via biochemical and physical pathways of litter mass loss. Nat. Geosci. 8 (2015), 776–779.
22. Covington, W.W., Changes in forest floor organic matter and nutrient content following clear cutting in northern hardwoods. Ecology 62 (1981), 41–48.
23. Dai, K.O., Johnson, C.E., Driscoll, C.T., Organic matter chemistry and dynamics in clear-cut and unmanaged hardwood forest ecosystems. Biogeochemistry 54 (2001), 51–83.
24. D'Amato, A.W., Fraver, S., Palik, B., Bradford, B.J., Patty, L., Singular and interactive effects of blowdown, salvage logging, and wildfire in northern Minnesota, USA. For. Ecol. Manage. 262 (2011), 2070–2078.
25. DeLuca, T.H., Boisvenue, C., Boreal forest soil carbon: distribution, function and modelling. Forestry 85 (2012), 161–184.
26. Denman, K.L., Brasseur, G., Chidthaisong, A., Ciais, P., Cox, P.M., Dickinson, R.E., Hauglustaine, D., Heinze, C., Holland, E., Jacob, D., Couplings between changes in the climate system and biogeochemistry. Clim. Change 2007 (2007), 541–584.
27. Diochon, A.C., Kellman, L., Physical fractionation of soil organic matter: destabilization of deep soil carbon following harvesting of a temperate coniferous forest. J. Geophys. Res., 114, 2009, G01016.
28. Duckert, D.R., Morris, D.M., 2001. Impacts of harvest intensity on long-term site productivity on black spruce ecosystems: An Establishment Report. Ont. Min. Nat. Res., CNFER Tech. Rep. TR-008.
29. Dungait, J.A.J., Hopkins, D.W., Gregory, A.S., Whitmore, A.P., Soil organic matter turnover is governed by accessibility not recalcitrance. Global Change Boil. 18 (2012), 1781–1796.
30. Ecoregions Working Group, 1989. Ecoclimatic regions of Canada, first approximation. Environ. Can., Ottawa, ON. Ecol. Land Classific. Ser. 23.
31. Finzi, A.C., Van Breemen, N., Canham, C.D., Canopy tree-soil interactions within temperate forests: species effects on soil carbon and nitrogen. Ecol. Appl. 8 (1998), 440–446.
32. Fontaine, S., Barot, S., Barré, P., Bdioui, N., Mary, B., Rumpel, C., Stability of organic carbon in deep soil layers controlled by fresh carbon supply. Nature 450 (2007), 277–280.
33. Forest Stewardship Council, FSC International Standard. FSC Principles and Criteria for Forest Stewardship FSC-STD-01-001 V5–2 EN. 2015.
34. Gahagan, A., Giardina, C.P., King, J.S., Binkley, D., Pregitzer, K.S., Burton, A.J., Carbon fluxes, storage and harvest removals through 60 years of stand development in red pine plantations and mixed hardwood stands in northern Michigan, USA. For. Ecol. Manage. 337 (2015), 88–97.
35. Giardina, C.P., Ryan, M.G., Hubbard, R.M., Binkley, D., Tree species and soil textural controls on carbon and nitrogen mineralization rates. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 65 (2001), 1272–1279.
36. Giardina, C.P., Coleman, M.D., Hancock, J.E., King, J.S., Lilleskov, E.A., Loya, W.M., Pregitzer, K.S., Ryan, M.G., Trettin, C.C., The response of belowground carbon allocation in forests to global change. Binkley, D., Menyailo, O., (eds.) Tree Species Effects on Soils: Implications for Global Change, 2005, Springer, New York, 119–154 NATO Science Series.
37. Gradowski, T., Sidders, D., Keddy, T., Lieffers, V.J., Landhäusser, S.M., Effects of overstory retention and site preparation on growth of planted white spruce seedlings in deciduous and coniferous dominated boreal plains mixedwoods. Forest Ecol. Manage. 255 (2008), 3744–3749.
38. Grand, S., Lavkulich, L.M., Effects of forest harvest on soil carbon and related variables in Canadian Spodosols. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 76 (2012), 1816–1827.
39. Hannam, K.D., Quideau, S.A., Oh, S.-W., Kishchuk, B.E., Wasylishen, R.E., Forest floor composition in aspen- and spruce-dominated stands of the boreal mixedwood forest. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 68 (2004), 1735–1743.
40. Harden, J.W., Trumbose, S.E., Stocks, B.J., Hirsch, A., Gower, S.T., O'Neill, K.P., Kasischke, E.S., The role of fire in the boreal carbon budget. Glob. Change Biol. 6 (2000), 174–184.
41. Hazlett, P.W., Morris, D.M., Fleming, R.L., Effects of biomass removals on site carbon and nutrients and jack pine growth in boreal forests. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 78:S1 (2014), 183–195.
42. Hobbie, S.E., Reich, P.B., Oleksyn, J., Ogdahl, M., Zytkowiak, R., Hale, C., Karolewski, P., Tree species effects on decomposition and forest floor dynamics in a common garden. Ecology 87 (2006), 2288–2297.
43. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Climate change 2013: The physical science basis. Stocker, T.F., Qin, D., Plattner, G.K., Tignor, M., Allen, S.K., Boschung, J., Nauels, A., Xia, Y., Bex, V., Midgley, P.M., (eds.) Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2013, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA.
44. Jandl, R., Linder, M., Vesterdal, L., Bauwens, B., Baritz, R., Hagedorn, F., Johnson, D.W., Minkkinen, K., Byrne, K.A., How strongly can forest management influence soil carbon sequestration?. Geoderma 137 (2007), 253–268.
45. Jobbagy, E.G., Jackson, R.B., The vertical distribution of soil organic carbon and its relation to climate and vegetation. Ecol. Appl. 10 (2000), 423–436.
46. Johnson, D.W., Curtis, P.S., Effects of forest management on soil C and N storage: meta- analysis. For. Ecol. Manage. 140 (2001), 227–238.
47. Jurgensen, M., Tarpey, R., Pickens, J., Kolka, R., Palik, B., Long-term effect of silvicultural thinnings on soil carbon and nitrogen pools. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 76 (2012), 1418–1425.
48. Kabzems, R., Aspen and white spruce productivity is reduced by organic matter removal and soil compaction. For. Chron. 88 (2012), 306–316.
49. Kalbitz, K., Glaser, B., Bol, R., Clear-cutting of a Norway spruce stand: implications for controls on the dynamics of dissolved organic matter in the forest floor. Eur. J. Soil Sci. 55 (2004), 401–413.
50. Khomik, M., Arain, M.A., McCaughey, J.H., Temporal and spatial variability of soil respiration in a boreal mixedwood forest. Agric. For. Meteorol. 140 (2006), 244–256.
51. Kishchuk, B.E., 2004. Soils of the Ecosystem Management Emulating Natural Disturbance (EMEND) experiment, northwestern Alberta. Can. For. Serv. Info. Rep. NOR-X-397.
52. Kishchuk, B.E., Quideau, S., Wang, Y., Prescott, C.E., Long-term soil response to variable-retention harvesting in the EMEND (Ecosystem Management Emulating Natural Disturbance) experiment, northwestern Alberta. Can. J. Soil Sci. 94 (2014), 263–279.
53. Kishchuk, B.E., Thiffault, E., Lorente, M., Quideau, S., Keddy, T., Sidders, D., Decadal soil and stand response to fire, harvest, and salvage-logging disturbances in the western boreal mixedwood forest of Alberta, Canada. Can. J. For. Res. 45 (2015), 141–152.
54. Klein, R.J., Schipper, E.L.F., Dessai, S., Integrating mitigation and adaptation into climate and development policy: three research questions. Environ. Sci. Policy 8 (2005), 579–588.
55. Krause, H., Forest floor mass and nutrients in two chronosequences of plantations: jack pine versus black spruce. Can. J. Soil Sci. 78 (1998), 77–83.
56. Kurz, W.A., Shaw, C.H., Boisvenue, C., Stinson, G., Metsaranta, J., Leckie, D., Dyk, A., Smyth, C., Neilson, E.T., Carbon in Canada's boreal forest – a synthesis. Environ. Rev. 21 (2013), 260–292.
57. Laganière, J., Angers, D.A., Paré, D., Bergeron, Y., Chen, H.Y.H., Black spruce soils accumulate more uncomplexed organic matter than aspen soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 75 (2011), 1125–1132.
58. Laganière, J., Paré, D., Bergeron, Y., Chen, H.Y.H., Brassard, B., Cavard, X., Stability of soil carbon stocks varies with forest composition in the Canadian boreal biome. Ecosystems 16 (2013), 852–865.
59. Laurent, A., De Schrijver, D., Vesterdal, L., Smolander, A., Prescott, C., Ranger, J., Influences of evergreen gymnosperm and deciduous angiosperm tree species on the functioning of temperate and boreal forests. Biol. Rev. 90 (2014), 444–466.
60. Lemprière, T.C., Kurz, W.A., Hogg, E.H., Schmoll, C., Rampley, G.J., Yemshanov, D., McKenny, D.W., Gilsenan, R., Beatch, A., Blain, D., Bhatti, J.S., Krcmar, E., Canadian boreal forests and climate change mitigation. Environ. Rev. 21 (2013), 293–321.
61. Lee, J., Morrison, I.K., Leblanc, J.D., Dumas, M.T., Cameron, D.A., Carbon sequestration in trees and regrowth vegetation as affected by clearcut and partial cut harvesting in a second-growth boreal mixedwood. For. Ecol. Manage. 169 (2002), 83–101.
62. Mackey, B., Prentice, I.C., Steffen, W., House, J.I., Lindenmayer, D., Keith, H., Berry, S., Untangling the confusion around land carbon science and climate change mitigation policy. Nat. Clim. Change 3 (2013), 552–557.
63. Maynard, D.G., Paré, D., Thiffault, E., Lafleur, B., Hogg, K.E., Kishchuk, B., How do natural disturbances and human activities affect soils and tree nutrition and growth in the Canadian boreal forest?. Environ. Rev. 22 (2014), 161–178.
64. Moen, J., Rist, L., Bishop, K., Chapin, F.S. III, Ellison, D., Kuuluvainen, T., Petersson, H., Puettmann, K.J., Rayner, J., Warkentin, I.G., Bradshaw, C.J.A., Eye on the Tiaga: removing global policy impediments to safeguard the Boreal forest. Conserv. Lett. 7 (2014), 408–418.
65. Moroni, M.T., Shaw, C.H., Otahal, P., Forest carbon stocks in Newfoundland boreal forests of harvest and natural disturbance origin. I. Field study. Can. J. For. Res. 40 (2010), 2135–2145.
66. Morris, D.M., Changes in DOC and DON fluxes in response to harvest intensity of black spruce-dominated forest ecosystems in northwestern Ontario. Can. J. Soil Sci. 89 (2009), 67–79.
67. Morris, D.M., Kwiaton, M.M., Duckert, D.R., Black spruce growth response to varying levels of biomass harvest intensity across a range of soil types: 15-year results. Can. J. For. Res. 44 (2014), 313–325.
68. Natural Resources Canada (NRCan), The State of Canada's Forests: Annual Report 2015. Fo1-6E. 2016.
69. Naudts, K., Chen, Y., McGrath, M.J., Ryder, J., Valade, A., Otto, J., Luyssaert, S., Europe's forest management did not mitigate climate warming. Science 351 (2016), 597–600.
70. Nave, L.E., Vance, E.D., Swanston, C.W., Curtis, P.S., Harvest impacts on soil carbon storage in temperate forests. For. Ecol. Manage. 295 (2010), 857–866.
71. Neff, J.C., Harden, J.W., Gleixner, G., Fire effects on soil organic matter content, composition, and nutrients in boreal interior Alaska. Can. J. For. Res. 35 (2005), 2178–2187.
72. Nilsen, P., Strand, L.T., Thinning intensity effects on carbon and nitrogen stores and fluxes in a Norway spruce (Picea abies (L) Karst.) stand after 33 years. For. Ecol. Manage. 256 (2008), 201–208.
73. Norris, C.E., Quideau, S.A., Bhatti, J.S., Wasylishen, R.E., MacKenzie, M.D., Influence of fire and harvest on soil organic carbon in jack pine sites. Can. J. For. Res. 39 (2009), 642–654.
74. Olsson, B.A., Staaf, H., Lundkvist, H., Bengtsson, J., Rosén, K., Carbon and nitrogen in coniferous forest soils after clear-felling and harvests of different intensity. For. Ecol. Manage. 82 (1996), 19–32.
75. Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources (OMNR), Forest Management Guide for Conserving Biodiversity at the Stand and Site Scales. 2010, Queen's Printer for Ontario, Toronto, ON.
76. Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry (OMNRF), Forest Management Guide to Silviculture in the Great Lakes – St. Lawrence and Boreal forests of Ontario. 2015, Queens Printer for Ontario, Toronto, ON.
77. Pan, Y., Birdsey, R.A., Fang, J., Houghton, R., Kauppi, P.E., Kurz, W.A., Phillips, O.L., Shvidenko, A., Lewis, S.L., Canadell, J.G., Ciais, P., Jackson, R.B., Pacala, S.W., McGuire, A.D., Piao, S., Rautiainen, A., Sitch, S., Hayes, D., A large and persistent carbon sink in the world's forests. Science 333 (2011), 988–993.
78. Pennock, D.J., van Kessel, C., Clear-cut forest harvest impacts on soil quality indicators in the mixedwood forest of Saskatchewan, Canada. Geoderma 75 (1997), 13–32.
79. Piao, S.L., Ciais, P., Friedlingstein, P., De Noblet-Ducoudré, N., Cadule, P., Viovy, N., Wang, T., Spatiotemporal patterns of terrestrial carbon cycle during the 20th century. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 23, 2009, GB4026.
80. Piirainen, S., Finér, L., Mannerkoski, H., Starr, M., Effects of forest clearcutting on the carbon and nitrogen fluxes through podzolic soil horizons. Plant Soil 239 (2002), 301–311.
81. Poirier, V., Pare, D., Boiffin, J., Munson, A.D., Combined influence of fire and salvage logging on carbon and nitrogen storage in boreal forest soil profiles. For. Ecol. Manage. 326 (2014), 133–141.
82. Pregitzer, K.S., Euskirchen, E.S., Carbon cycling and storage in world forests: biome patterns related to forest age. Glob. Change Biol. 10 (2004), 2052–2077.
83. Prescott, C.E., Effects of clearcutting and alternative silvicultural systems on rates of decomposition and nitrogen mineralization in a coastal montane coniferous forest. For. Ecol. Manage. 95 (1997), 253–260.
84. Preston, C.M., Trofymow, J.A., Canadian Intersite Decomposition Working Group. Variability in litter quality and its relationship to litter decay in Canadian forests. Can. J. Bot. 78 (2000), 1269–1287.
85. Puhlick, J.J., Fernandez, I.J., Weiskittel, A.R., Evaluation of forest management effects on the mineral soil carbon pool of a lowland, mixed-species forest in Maine, USA. Can. J. Soil Sci., 2016, 10.1139/CJSS-2015-0136 Published on the web 7 April 2016.
86. Salomé, C., Nunan, N., Pouteau, V., Lerch, T., Chenu, C., Carbon dynamics in topsoil and in subsoil may be controlled by different regulatory mechanisms. Global Change Biol. 16 (2010), 416–426.
87. Schmidt, M.W.I., Torn, M.S., Abiven, S., Dittmar, T., Guggenberger, G., Janssens, I.A., Kleber, M., Kögel-Knabner, I., Lehmann, J., Manning, D.A.C., Nannipieri, P., Rasse, D.P., Weiner, S., Trumbore, S.E., Persistence of soil organic matter as an ecosystem property. Nature 478 (2011), 49–56.
88. Schwenk, W.S., Donovan, T.M., Keeton, W.S., Nunery, J.S., Carbon storage, timber production, and biodiversity: comparing ecosystem services with multi-criteria decision analysis. Ecol. Appl. 22 (2012), 1612–1627.
89. Seedre, M., Shrestha, B.M., Chen, H.Y.H., Columbo, S., Jõgiste, K., Carbon dynamics of North American boreal forest after stand replacing wildfire and clearcut logging. J. For. Res. 16 (2011), 168–183.
90. Seedre, M., Taylor, A.R., Brassard, B.W., Chen, H.Y.H., Jõgiste, K., Recovery of ecosystem carbon stocks in young boreal forests: a comparison of harvesting and wildfire disturbance. Ecosystems 17 (2014), 851–863.
91. Shrestha, B.M., Chen, H.Y.H., Effects of stand age, wildfire, and clearcut harvesting on forest floor in boreal mixedwood forests. Plant Soil 336 (2010), 267–277.
92. Sippola, A.-L., Similä, M., Mönkkönen, M., Jokimäki, J., Diversity of polyporous fungi (Polyporaceae) in northern boreal forests: effects of forest site type and logging intensity. Scand. J. For. Res. 19 (2004), 152–163.
93. Siitonen, J., Forest management, coarse woody debris and saproxylic organisms: Fennoscandian boreal forests as an example. Ecol. Bull. 49 (2001), 11–41.
94. Smyth, C.E., Stinson, G., Neilson, E., Lemprière, T.C., Hafer, M., Rampley, G.J., Kurz, W.A., Quantifying the biophysical climate change mitigation potential of Canada's forest sector. Biogeosciences 11 (2014), 3515–3529.
95. Spracklen, D.V., Bonn, B., Carslaw, K.S., Boreal forests, aerosols and the impacts on clouds and climate. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A: Math. Phys. Eng. Sci. 366 (2008), 4613–4626.
96. 2. Science 316 (2007), 1732–1735.
97. Stinson, G., Kurz, W.A., Smyth, C.E., Neilson, E.T., Dymond, C.C., Metsaranta, J.M., Boisvenue, C., Rampley, G.J., Li, Q., White, T.M., Blains, D., An inventory-based analysis of Canada's managed forest carbon dynamics, 1990 to 2008. Glob. Change Biol. 17 (2011), 2227–2244.
98. Strong, W.L., LaRoi, G.H., Root-system morphology of common boreal forest trees in Alberta, Canada. Can. J. For. Res. 13 (1983), 1164–1173.
99. Strukelj, M., Brais, S., Paré, D., Nine-year changes in carbon dynamics following different intensities of harvesting in boreal aspen stands. Eur. J. For. Res. 134 (2015), 737–754.
100. Sustainable Forestry Initiative, SFI 2015–2019 Standards and Rules. 2015, Forest Management Standard January 2015.
101. Swart, R., Raes, F., Making integration of adaptation and mitigation work: mainstreaming into sustainable development policies?. Clim. Policy 7 (2007), 288–303.
102. Thiffault, E., Hannam, K.D., Quideau, S.A., Pare, D., Belanger, N., Oh, S.W., Munson, A.D., Chemical composition of forest floor and consequences for nutrient availability after wildfire and harvesting in the boreal forest. Plant Soil 308 (2008), 37–53.
103. Thiffault, E., Hannam, K.D., Paré, D., Titus, B.D., Hazlett, P.W., Maynard, D.G., Brais, S., Effects of forest biomass harvesting on soil productivity in boreal and temperate forests – a review. Environ. Rev. 19 (2011), 278–309.
104. Tremblay, S., Ouimet, R., White spruce plantations on abandoned agricultural land: are they more effective as C sinks than natural succession?. Forests 4 (2013), 1141–1157.
105. Valentini, R., Matteucci, G., Dolman, A.J., Schulze, E.D., Rebmann, C., Moors, E.J., Granier, A., Gross, P., Jensen, N.O., Pilegaard, K., Lindroth, A., Grelle, A., Bernhofer, C., Grunwald, T., Aubinet, M., Ceulemans, R., Kowalski, A.S., Vesala, T., Rannik, U., Berbigier, P., Loustau, D., Gu[eth]mundsson, J., Thorgeirs-son, H., Ibrom, A., Morgenstern, K., Clement, R., Moncrieff, J., Montagnani, L., Minerbi, S., Jarvis, P.G., Respiration as the main determinant of carbon balance in European forests. Nature 404 (2000), 861–865.
106. Vesterdal, L., Schmidt, I.K., Callesen, I., Nilsson, L.O., Gundersen, P., Carbon and nitrogen in forest floor and mineral soil under six common European tree species. For. Ecol. Manage. 255 (2008), 35–48.
107. Vesterdal, L., Clarke, N., Sigurdsson, B.D., Gundersen, P., Do tree species influence carbon stocks in temperate and boreal forests?. For. Ecol. Manage. 309 (2013), 4–18.
108. Wiken, E.B., 1986. Terrestrial ecozones of Canada. Environ. Can., Lands Dir., Ottawa, ON. Ecol. Land Classific. Ser. 19.
109. Zhou, D., Zhao, S.Q., Liu, S., Oeding, J., A meta-analysis on the impacts of partial cutting on forest structure and carbon storage. Biogeosciences 10 (2013), 3691–3703.