The Behavioural Flexibility of Salmon Growth

Atlantic Salmon Ecology

Volumn , Issue , 2011, Pages 145-169

  Forseth, Torbjørn ^a   Letcher, Benjamin H ^b   Johansen, Morten ^a  

^a NORWEGIAN INSTITUTE FOR NATURE RESEARCH   (Norway)

^b U S GEOLOGICAL SURVEY   (United States)

Author keywords

Compensatory growth; Growth constraints; Interspecific competition; Marine growth; Thermal adaptation

Indexed keywords

EID: 84985880266     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1002/9781444327755.ch6     Document Type: Chapter

References (178)

1. Ali, M., Nicieza, A., & Wooton, R.J. (2003) Compensatory growth in fishes: a response to growth depression. Fish & Fisheries 4, 147-190.
2. Allen, K.R. (1985) Comparison of the growth rate of brown trout (Salmo trutta) in a New Zealand stream with experimental fish in Britain. Journal of Animal Ecology 54, 487-495.
3. Alvarez, D., & Nicieza, A.G. (2005) Compensatory response'defends'energy levels but not growth trajectories in brown trout, Salmo trutta L. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 272, 601-607.
4. Amundsen, P.-A., & Gabler, H.-M. (2008) Food consumption and growth of Atlantic salmon Salmo salar parr in sub-Arctic rivers: empirical support for food limitation and competition. Journal of Fish Biology 73, 250-261.
5. Angilletta, M.J., Wilson, R.S., Navas, C.A., et al. (2003) Tradeoffs and the evolution of thermal reaction norms. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 18, 234-240.
6. Arendt, J.D. (1997) Adaptive intrinsic growth rates-an integration across taxa. Quarterly Review of Biology 72, 149-177.
7. Arendt, J., Wilson, D.S., & Stark, E. (2001) Scale strength as a cost of rapid growth in sunfish. Oikos 93, 95-100.
8. Armstrong, J.D. (2005) Spatial variation in population dynamics of juvenile Atlantic salmon: implications for conservation and management. Journal of Fish Biology 67 (SUPPL. B), 35-52.
9. Armstrong, J.D., Kemp, P.S., Kennedy, G.J.A., et al. (2003) Habitat requirements of Atlantic salmon and brown trout in rivers and streams. Fisheries Research 62, 143-170.
10. Arndt, S.K.A., Cunjak, R.A., & Benfey, T.J. (2002) Effect of summer floods and spatio-temporal scale on growth and feeding of juvenile Atlantic salmon in two New Brunswick streams. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 131, 607-622.
11. Arnekleiv, J.V., Finstad, A.G., & Rønning, L. (2006) Temporal and spatial variation in growth of juvenile Atlantic salmon. Journal of Fish Biology 68, 1062-1076.
12. Bacon, P.J., Gurney, W.S.C., Jones, W., et al. (2005) Seasonal growth patterns of wild juvenile fish: partitioning variation among explanatory variables, based on individual growth trajectories of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) parr. Journal of Animal Ecology 74, 1-11.
13. Beaugrand, G., & Reid, P.C. (2003) Long-term changes in phytoplankton, zooplankton and salmon related to climate. Global Change Biology 9, 801-817.
14. Berrill, I.K., Porter, M.J.R., Smart, A., et al. (2003) Photoperiodic effects on precocious maturation, growth and smoltification in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar. Aquaculture 222, 239-252.
15. Billerbeck, J.M., Lankford, T.E., & Conover, D.O. (2001) Evolution of intrinsic growth and energy acquisition rates. I. Trade-offs with swimming performance in Menidia menidia. Evolution 55, 1863-1872.
16. Biro, P.A., Abrahams, M.V., Post, J.R., et al. (2006) Behavioural trade-offs between growth and mortality explain evolution of submaximal growth rates. Journal of Animal Ecology 75, 1165-1171.
17. Blanchet, S., Loot, G., Bernatchez, L., et al. (2007) The disruption of dominance hierarchies by a non-native species: an individual-based analysis. Oecologia 152, 569-581.
18. Boersma, B., & Wit, J.M. (1997) Catch-up growth. Endocrine Review 18, 616-661.
19. Brett, J.R. (1971) Energetic responses of salmon to temperature. American Zoologist 11, 99-11
20. Carlson, S.M., Hendry, A.P., & Letcher, B.H. (2004) Natural selection acting on body size, growth rate and compensatory growth: an empirical test in a wild trout population. Evolutionary Ecology Research 6, 955-973.
21. Carlson, S.M., Hendry, A.P., & Letcher, B.H. (2007) Growth rate differences between resident native brook trout and non-native brown trout. Journal of Fish Biology 71, 1430-1447.
22. Conover, D.O., & Schultz, E.T. (1995) Phenotypic similarity and the evolutionary significance of countergradient variation. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 10, 248-252.
23. Cook, J.T., McNiven, M.A., & Sutterlin, A.M. (2000) Metabolic rate of pre-smelt growth enhanced transgenic Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Aquaculture 188, 33-45.
24. Craig, J.F. (1982) A note on the growth and mortality of trout, Salmo trutta L., in afferent streams of Windermere. Journal of Fish Biology 20, 423-429.
25. Crozier, W.W., & Kennedy, G.J.A. (1999) Relationships between marine growth and marine survival of one sea winter Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., from the River Bush, northern Ireland. Fisheries Management & Ecology 6, 89-96.
26. Cunjak, R.A. (1992) Comparative feeding, growth and movements of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) parr from riverine and estuarine environments. Ecology of Freshwater Fish 1, 26-34.
27. Davidson, R.S., Letcher, B.H., & Nislow, K.H. (2009) Effects of environmental variables on growth variation of freshwater Atlantic salmon. Ecology, submitted.
28. Duston, J. (1994) Effect of salinity on survival and growth of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) parr and smolts. Aquaculture 121, 115-124.
29. Edwards, R.W., Densem, J.W., & Russell, P.A. (1979) An assessment of the importance of temperature as a factor controlling the growth rate of brown trout in streams. Journal of Animal Ecology 48, 501-507.
30. Einum, S. (2003) Atlantic salmon growth in strongly food-limited environments: Effects of egg size and paternal phenotype? Environmental Biology of Fishes 67, 263-268.
31. Einum, S., & Fleming, I.A. (1999) Maternal effects of egg size in brown trout (Salmo trutta): norms of reaction to environmental quality. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 266, 2095-2100.
32. Einum, S., & Fleming, I.A. (2000) Selection against late emergence and small offspring in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Evolution 54, 628-639.
33. Einum, S., Kinnison, M.T., & Hendry, A.P. (2004) Evolution of egg size and number. In: Evolution Illuminated. Salmon and Their Relatives (eds A.E. Hendry & S.C. Stearns) pp. 126-153. New York: Oxford University Press.
34. Einum, S., & Nislow, K.H. (2005) Local-scale density-dependent survival of mobile organisms in continuous habitats: an experimental test using Atlantic salmon. Oecologia 143, 203-210.
35. Einum, S., Sundt-Hansen, L., & Nislow, K.H. (2006) The partitioning of density-dependent dispersal, growth and survival throughout ontogeny in a highly fecund organism. Oikos 113, 489-496.
36. Einum, S., Nislow, K.H., Mckelvey, S., et al. (2008) Nest distribution shaping within-stream variation in Atlantic salmon juvenile abundance and competition over small spatial scales. Journal of Animal Ecology 77, 167-172.
37. Einum, S., & Nislow, K.H. (2011) Variation in population size through time and space: theory and recent empirical advances from Atlantic salmon. Chapter 11 in Atlantic Salmon Ecology (eds Ø. Aas, S. Einum, A. Klemetsen & J. Skurdal). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
38. Elliott, J.M. (1975) The growth rate of brown trout (Salmo trutta L.) fed on maximum rations. Journal of Animal Ecology 44, 805-842.
39. Elliott, J.M., Hurley M.A., & Fryer, R.J. (1995) A new, improved growth model for brown trout, Salmo trutta L. Functional Ecology 9, 290-298.
40. Elliott, J.M., & Hurley, M.A. (1997) A functional model for maximum growth of Atlantic Salmon parr, Salmo salar, from two populations in northwest England. Functional Ecology 11, 592-603.
41. Elliott, J.M., & Hurley, M.A. (2003) Variation in the temperature preference and growth rate of individual fish reconciles differences between two growth models. Freshwater Biology 48, 1793-1798.
42. Fausch, K.D. (1998) Interspecific competition and juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar): on testing effects and evaluating the evidence across scales. Canadian Journal of Fisheries & Aquatic Sciences 55, 218-231.
43. Finstad, A.G., Næsje, T.F., & Forseth, T. (2004a) Seasonal variation in the thermal performance of juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Freshwater Biology 49, 1459-1467.
44. Finstad, A.G., Ugedal, O., Forseth, T., et al. (2004b) Energy-related juvenile winter mortality in a northern population of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Canadian Journal of Fisheries & Aquatic Sciences 61, 2358-2368.
45. Finstad, A.G., Forseth, T., Næsje, TF., et al. (2004c) The importance of ice cover for energy turnover in juvenile Atlantic salmon. Journal of Animal Ecology 73, 959-966.
46. Finstad, A.G., & Forseth, T. (2006) Adaptation to ice-cover conditions in Atlantic salmon Salmo salar L. Evolutionary Ecology Research 8, 1249-1262.
47. Finstad, A.G., Einum, S., Forseth, T., et al. (2007) Shelter availability affects behaviour, size-dependent and mean growth of juvenile Atlantic salmon. Freshwater Biology 52, 1710-1718.
48. Finstad, A.G., Einum, S., Ugedal, O., et al. (2009) Spatial distribution of limited resources and local density regulation in juvenile Atlantic salmon. Journal of Animal Ecology 78, 226-235.
49. Finstad, A.G., Armstrong, J.D., & Nislow, K.H. (2011) Freshwater Habitat Requirements of Atlantic Salmon. Chapter 3 in Atlantic Salmon Ecology (eds Ø. Aas, S. Einum, A. Klemetsen & J. Skurdal). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
50. Fivelstad, S., Waagbø, R., Zeitz, S.F., et al. (2003) A major water quality problem in smolt farms: combined effects of carbon dioxide, reduced pH and aluminium on Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) smolts: physiology and growth. Aquaculture 215, 339-357.
51. Fleming, I.A. (1996) Reproductive strategies of Atlantic salmon: ecology and evolution. Reviews in Fish Biology & Fisheries 6, 379-416.
52. Fleming, I.A., & Einum, S. (2011) Reproductive Ecology: A Tale of Two Sexes. Chapter 2 in Atlantic Salmon Ecology (eds Ø. Aas, S. Einum, A. Klemetsen & J. Skurdal). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
53. Flodmark, L.E.W., Vøllestad, L.A., & Forseth, T. (2004) Performance of juvenile brown trout exposed to fluctuating water level and temperature. Journal of Fish Biology 65, 460-470.
54. Forseth, T., Hurley, M.A., Jensen, A.J., et al. (2001) Functional models for growth and food consumption of Atlantic salmon parr, Salmo salar, from a Norwegian river. Freshwater Biology 46, 173-186.
55. Forseth, T., Ugedal, O., Jonsson, B., et al. (2003) Selection on Arctic charr generated by competition from brown trout. Oikos 101, 467-478.
56. Forseth, T., Larsson, S., Jensen, A.J., et al. (2009) Thermal growth performance of juvenile brown trout Salmo trutta: no support for thermal adaptation hypotheses. Journal of Fish Biology 74, 133-149.
57. Friedland, K.D. (1998) Ocean climate influences on critical Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) life history events. Canadian Journal of Fisheries & Aquatic Sciences 55, 119-130.
58. Friedland, K.D., Reddin, D.G., & Kocik, J.F. (1993) Marine survival of North American and European Atlantic salmon: effects of growth and environment. ICES Journal of Marine Science 50, 481-492.
59. Friedland, K.D., Hansen, L.P., & Dunkley, D.A. (1998) Marine temperatures experienced by postsmolts and the survival of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., in the North Sea area. Fisheries Oceanography 7, 22-34.
60. Friedland, K.D., Hansen, L.P., Dunkley, D.A., et al. (2000) Linkage between ocean climate, post-smolt growth, and survival of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) in the North Sea area. ICES Journal of Marine Science 57, 419-429.
61. Friedland, K.D., Chaput, G., & MacLean, J.C. (2005) The emerging role of climate in post-smolt growth of Atlantic salmon. ICES Journal of Marine Science 62, 1338-1349.
62. Garant, D., Fontaine, P-M., Good, S.P., et al. (2002) The influence of male parental identity on growth and survival of offspring in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Evolutionary Ecology Research 4, 537-549.
63. Garant, D., Dodson, J.J., & Bernatchez, L. (2003) Differential reproductive success and heritability of alternative reproductive tactics in wild Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). Evolution 57, 1133-1141.
64. Garcia de Leaniz, C., Fleming, I.A., Einum, S., et al. (2007) A critical review of adaptive genetic variation in Atlantic salmon: implications for conservation. Biological Reviews 82, 173-211.
65. Gardiner, V.R., & Geddes, P. (1980) The influence of body composition on the survival of juvenile salmon. Hydrobiologia 69, 67-72.
66. Gelman, A., Carlin, J.B., Stern, H.S., et al. (2004) Bayesian Data Analysis, 2nd edn. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
67. Gibson, A.J.F., Bowlby, H.D., & Amiro, P.G. (2008) Are wild populations ideally distributed? Variations in density-dependent habitat use by age class in juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Canadian Journal of Fisheries & Aquatic Sciences 65, 1667-1680.
68. Gibson, R.J., & Dickson, T.A. (1984) The effects of competition on the growth of juvenile Atlantic salmon. Le Naturaliste Canadien 111, 175-191.
69. Gibson, R.J., & Haedrich, R.L. (1988) The exceptional growth of juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in the city waters of St John's, Newfoundland, Canada. Polskie Archiwum Hydrobiologii 35, 385-407.
70. Gjedrem, T. (2000) Genetic improvement of cold-water fish species. Aquaculture Research 31, 25-33.
71. Gjedrem T., Gjøen H.M., & Gjerde B. (1991) Genetic origin of Norwegian farmed Atlantic salmon. Aquaculture 98, 41-50.
72. Gjerde, B., Simianer, D.J., & Refstie, T. (1994) estimates of genetic and phenotypic parameters for body-weight, growth-rate and sexual maturity in Atlantic salmon. Livestock Production Science 38, 133-143.
73. Glover, K.A., Hamre, L.A, Skaala, O., et al. (2004) A comparison of sea louse (Lepeophtheirus salmonis ) infection levels in farmed and wild Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) stocks. Aquaculture 232, 41-52.
74. Grant, J.W.A., & Imre, I. (2005) Patterns of density-dependent growth in juvenile stream-dwelling salmonids. Journal of Fish Biology 67, 100-110.
75. Guerrero-Tortolero, D.A., & Bromage, N. (2008) Growth and maturation of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) populations with different grilse proportions under natural photoperiod and superimposed nighttime light. Aquaculture 285, 63-66.
76. Gunnes K., & Gjedrem T. (1978) Selection experiments with salmon. IV. Growth of Atlantic salmon during two years in the sea. Aquaculture 15, 19-38.
77. Handeland, S.O., Porter, M., Björnsson, B.T., et al. (2003) Osmoregulation and growth in a wild and a selected strain of Atlantic salmon smolts on two photoperiod regimes. Aquaculture 222, 29-43.
78. Hansen, L.P., & Quinn, T.P. (1998) The marine phase of the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) life cycle, with comparisons to Pacific salmon. Canadian Journal of Fisheries & Aquatic Sciences 55, 104-118.
79. Harwood, A.J., Armstrong, J.D., Metcalfe, N.B., et al. (2003) Does dominance status correlate with growth in wild stream-dwelling Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)? Behavioral Ecology 14, 902-908.
80. He, J.X., Bence, J.R., Johnson, J.E., et al. (2008) Modeling variation in mass-length relations and condition indices of lake trout and Chinook salmon in Lake Huron: a hierarchical Bayesian approach. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 137, 801-817.
81. Heggberget, T.G. (1988) Timing of migration in Norwegian Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) Canadian Journal of Fisheries Research 45, 845-849.
82. Heggenes, J., Krog, O. M.W., Lindas, O.R., et al. (1993) Homeostatic behavioral-responses in a changing environment-brown trout (Salmo trutta) become nocturnal during winter. Journal of Animal Ecology 62, 295-308.
83. Hesthagen, T., & Hansen, L.P. (1991) Estimates of the annual loss of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., in Norway due to acidification. Aquaculture & Fisheries Management 22, 85-91.
84. Hildrew, A.G., & Giller, P.S. (1994) Patchiness, species interactions and disturbance in the stream benthos. In: Aquatic Ecology. Scale, Pattern and Process (eds P.S. Giller, A.G. Hildrew & D. Raffaelli) pp. 21-62. Oxford: Blackwell Science.
85. Hosfeld, C.D., Engevik, A., Mollan, T., et al. (2008) Long-term separate and combined effects of environmental hypercapnia and hyperoxia in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) smolts. Aquaculture 280, 146-153.
86. Hubley, P.B., Amiro, P.G., & Gibson, A.J.F. (2008) Changes in scale circulus spacings of an endangered Atlantic salmon Salmo salar population: evidence of a shift in marine migration? Journal of Fish Biology 73, 2321-2340.
87. Huey, R.B., & Kingsolver, J.G. (1989) Evolution of thermal sensitivity of ectotherm performance. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 4, 131-135.
88. Imre, I., & Boisclair, D. (2004) Age effects on diel activity patterns of juvenile Atlantic salmon: parr are more nocturnal than young-of-the-year. Journal of Fish Biology 6, 1731-1736.
89. Imre, I., Grant, J.W.A., & Cunjak, R.A. (2005) Density-dependent growth of young-of-the-year Atlantic salmon Salmo salar in Catamaran Brook, New Brunswick. Journal of Animal Ecology 74, 508-516.
90. Jacobsen, J.A., & Hansen, L.P. (2000) Feeding habits of Atlantic salmon at different life stages at sea. In The Ocean Life of Atlantic Salmon-Environmental and Biological Factors influencing Survival (ed. D. Mills) pp. 170-192. Oxford: Fishing News Books.
91. Jenkins, T.M., Diehl, S., Kratz, K.W., et al. (1999) Effects of population density on individual growth of brown trout in streams. Ecology 80, 941-956.
92. Jensen, A.J. (1990) Growth of young migratory brown trout Salmo trutta correlated with water temperature in Norwegian rivers. Journal of Animal Ecology 59, 603-614.
93. Jensen, A.J. (2003) Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in the regulated river Alta: effects of altered water temperature on parr growth. River Research & Applications 19, 733-747.
94. Jensen, A.J., Forseth, T., & Johnsen, B.O. (2000) Latitudinal variation in growth of young brown trout Salmo trutta. Journal of Animal Ecology 69, 1010-1020.
95. Jhingan, E., Devlin, R.H., & Iwama, G.K. (2003) Disease resistance, stress reponse and effects of triploidy in growth hormone transgenic coho salmon. Journal of Fish Biology 63, 806-823.
96. Johansen, M., Erkinaro, J., & Amundsen, P.-A. (2011) The when, what and where of freshwater feeding. Chapter 4 in Atlantic Salmon Ecology (eds Ø. Aas, S. Einum, A. Klemetsen & J. Skurdal). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
97. Johnsson, J.I., Petersson, E., Jonsson, E., et al. (1999) Growth hormone-induced effects on mortality, energy status and growth: a field study on brown trout (Salmo trutta). Functional Ecology 13, 514-522.
98. Johnsson, J.I., & Bohlin, T. (2006) The cost of catching up: increased winter mortality following structural growth compensation in the wild. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 273, 1281-1286.
99. Johnston, P., Bergeron, N.E., & Dodson, J.J. (2004) Diel activity patterns of juvenile Atlantic salmon in rivers with summer water temperature near the temperature-dependent suppression of diurnal activity. Journal of Fish Biology 65, 1305-1318.
100. Jones, W., Gurney, W.S.C., Speirs, D.C., et al. (2002) Seasonal patterns of growth, expenditure and assimilation in juvenile Atlantic salmon. Journal of Animal Ecology 71, 916-924.
101. Jonsson, B., & Jonsson, N. (1993) Partial migration: niche shift versus sexual maturation in fishes. Reviews in Fisheries & Biology of Fishes 3, 348-365.
102. Jonsson, N., Jonsson, B., & Hansen, L.P. (1998) The relative role of density-dependent and density-independent survival in the life cycle of Atlantic salmon Salmo salar. Journal of Animal Ecology 67, 751-762.
103. Jonsson, B., Forseth, T., Jensen, A.J., et al. (2001) Thermal performance of juvenile Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L. Functional Ecology 15, 701-711.
104. Jonsson, B., & Jonsson, N. (2004a) Factors affecting marine production of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Canadian Journal of Fisheries & Aquatic Sciences 61, 2369-2383.
105. Jonsson, N., & Jonsson, B. (2004b) Size and age of maturity of Atlantic salmon correlate with the North Atlantic Oscillation Index (NAOI). Journal of Fish Biology 64, 241-247.
106. Jonsson, N., & Jonsson, B. (2007) Sea growth, smolt age and age at sexual maturation in Atlantic salmon. Journal of Fish Biology 71, 245-252.
107. Jonsson, N., Næsje, T.F., Jonsson, B., et al. (1999) The influence of piscivory on life history traits of brown trout. Journal of Fish Biology 55, 1129-1141.
108. Juanes, F., Letcher, B.H., & Gries, G. (2000) Ecology of stream fish: insights gained from an individual-based approach to juvenile Atlantic salmon. Ecology of Freshwater Fish 9, 65-73.
109. Jutila, E., Jokikokko, E., & Julkunen, M. (2006) Long-term changes in the smolt size and age of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., in a northern Baltic river related to parr density, growth opportunity and postsmolt survival. Ecology of Freshwater Fish 15, 321-330.
110. Kallio-Nyberg, I., Jutila, E., Saloniemi, I., et al. (2004) Association between environmental factors, smolt size and the survival of wild and reared Atlantic salmon from the Simojoki River in the Baltic Sea. Journal of Fish Biology 65, 122-134.
111. Keeley, E.R., & Grant, J.W.A. (2001) Prey size of salmonid fishes in streams, lakes, and oceans. Canadian Journal of Fisheries & Aquatic Sciences 58, 1122-1132.
112. Kemp, P.S., Gilvear, D.J., & Armstrong, J.D. (2006) Variation in performance reveals discharge-related energy costs for foraging Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) parr. Ecology of Freshwater Fish 15, 565-571.
113. Kennedy, G.J.A., & Strange, C.D. (1986) The effects of intra-and inter-specific competition on the survival and growth of stocked juvenile Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., and resident trout, Salmo trutta L., in an upland stream. Journal of Fish Biology 28, 479-489.
114. Kingsolver, J.G., & Gomulkiewicz, R. (2003) Environmental variation and selection on performance curves. Integrative & Comparative Biology 43, 470-477.
115. Kingsolver, J.G., Ragland, G.J., & Shlichta, J.G. (2004) Quantitative genetics of continuous reaction norms: Thermal sensitivity of caterpillar growth rates. Evolution 58, 1521-1529.
116. L'Abée-Lund, J.H., Langeland, A., & Sægrov, H. (1992) Piscivory by brown trout (Salmo trutta L.) and Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpines L.) in Norwegian lakes. Journal of Fish Biology 41, 91-101.
117. Lacroix, G.L. (1989) Production of juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in two acidic rivers of Nova Scotia. Canadian Journal of Fisheries & Aquatic Sciences 46, 2003-2018.
118. Lankford, T.E., Billerbeck, J.M., & Conover, D.O. (2001) Evolution of intrinsic growth and energy acquisition rates. II. Trade-offs with vulnerability to predation in Menidia menidia. Evolution 55, 1873-1881.
119. Larsson, S., Forseth, T., Berglund, I., et al. (2005) Thermal adaptation of Arctic charr: experimental studies of growth in eleven charr populations from Sweden, Norway and Britain. Freshwater Biology 50, 353-368.
120. Lauters, F., Lavandier, P., Lim, P., et al. (1996) Influence of hydropeaking on invertebrates and their relationship with fish feeding habitats in a Pyrenean river. Regulated Rivers: Research & Management 12, 563-573.
121. Letcher, B.H., & Gries, G. (2003) Effects of life history variation on size and growth in stream-dwelling Atlantic salmon. Journal of Fish Biology 62, 97-114.
122. Letcher, B.H., Dubreuil, T., O'Donnell, M.J., et al. (2004) Long-term consequences of variation in timing and manner of fry introduction on juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) growth, survival, and life-history expression. Canadian Journal of Fisheries & Aquatic Sciences 61, 2288-2301.
123. Letcher, B.H., & Horton, G.E. (2008) Seasonal variation in size-dependent survival of juvenile Atlantic salmon: performance of multistate capture-mark-recapture models. Canadian Journal of Fisheries & Aquatic Sciences, in press.
124. Levins, R. (1969) Thermal acclimation and heat resistance in Drosophila species. American Naturalist 103, 483-499.
125. Levinton, J.S. (1983) The latitudinal compensation hypothesis: growth data and a model of latitudinal growth differentiation based upon energy budgets. I. Interspecific comparison of Ophryotrocha (Polychaeta: Dorvilleidae). Biological Bulletin 165, 686-698.
126. Lundqvist, H., McKinnell, S., Fängstam, H., et al. (1994) The effect of time, size and sex on recapture rates and yield after river releases of Salmo salar smolts. Aquaculture 121, 245-257.
127. Magnuson, J.J., Robertson, D.M., Benson, J.B., et al. (2000) Historical trends in lake and river ice-cover in the Northern hemisphere. Science 289, 1743-1746.
128. Martin-Smith, K.M., & Armstrong, J.D. (2002) Growth rates of wild stream-dwelling Atlantic salmon correlate with activity and sex but not dominance. Journal of Animal Ecology 71, 413-423.
129. McCarthy, J.L., Friedland, K.D., & Hansen, L.P. (2008) Monthly indices of the post-smolt growth of Atlantic salmon from the Drammen River, Norway. Journal of Fish Biology 72, 1572-1588.
130. Metcalfe, N.B. (1991) Competitive ability influences seaward migration age in Atlantic salmon. Canadian Journal of Zoology 69, 815-817.
131. Metcalfe, N.B., Huntingford, F.A., Graham, W.D., et al. (1989) Early social status and the development of life-history strategies in Atlantic salmon. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 236, 7-19.
132. Metcalfe, N.B., Fraser, N.H., & Burns, M.D. (1998) State-dependent shifts between nocturnal and diurnal activity in salmon. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 265, 1503-1507.
133. Metcalfe, N.B., Fraser, N.H., & Burns, M.D. (1999) Food availability and the nocturnal vs. diurnal foraging trade-off in juvenile salmon. Journal of Animal Ecology 68, 371-381
134. Metcalfe, N.B., & Monaghan, P. (2001) Compensation for a bad start: grow now, pay later? Trends in Ecology & Evolution 16, 254-260.
135. Morgan, I.J., McCarthy, I.D. & Metcalfe, N.B. (2000) Life-history strategies and protein metabolism in overwintering juvenile Atlantic salmon: growth is enhanced in early migrants through lower protein turnover. Journal of Fish Biology 56, 637-647.
136. Morgan, I.J., & Metcalfe, N.B. (2001) Deferred costs of compensatory growth after autumnal food shortage in juvenile salmon. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 268, 295-301.
137. Mortensen, E. (1985) Popluation and energy dynamics of trout Salmo trutta in a small Danish stream. Journal of Animal Ecology 54, 869-882.
138. Mortensen, E., Geertz-Hansen, P., & Marcus, E. (1988) The significance of temperature and food as factors affecting the growth of brown trout, Salmo trutta L., in four Danish streams. Polskie Archiwum Hydrobiologii 35, 533-544.
139. Munch, S.B., & Conover, D.O. (2003) Rapid growth results in increased susceptibility to predation in Menidia menidia. Evolution 57, 2119-2127.
140. Nicieza, A.G., & Braña, F. (1993) Relationships among smolt size, marine growth, and sea age at maturity of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in northern Spain. Canadian Journal of Fisheries & Aquatic Sciences 50, 1632-1640.
141. Nicieza, A.G., Reyes-Gavilán, F.G., & Braña, F. (1994a) Differentiation in juvenile growth and bimodality patterns between northern and southern populations of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). Canadian Journal of Zoology 72, 1603-1610.
142. Nicieza, A.G., Reiriz L., & Braña, F. (1994b) Variation in digestive performance between geographically disjunct populations of Atlantic salmon: countergradient in passage time and digestion rate. Oecologia 99, 243-251.
143. Nicieza, A.G., & Metcalfe, N.B. (1997) Growth compensation in juvenile Atlantic salmon: responses to depressed temperature and food availability. Ecology 78, 2385-2400.
144. Nicola, G.G., & Almodóvar, A. (2004) Growth pattern of stream-dwelling brown trout under contrasting thermal conditions. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 133, 66-78.
145. Nislow, K.H., Sepulveda, A.J., & Folt, C.L. (2004) Mechanistic linkage of hydrologic regime to summer growth of age-0 Atlantic salmon. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 133, 79-88.
146. Nislow, K.H., Armstrong, J.D., Y Grant, J.W.A. (2011) The role of competition in the ecology of juvenile Atlantic salmon. Chapter 7 in Atlantic Salmon Ecology (eds Ø. Aas, S. Einum, A. Klemetsen & J. Skurdal). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
147. Obedzinski, M., & Letcher, B.H. (2004) Variation in freshwater growth and development among five New England Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) populations reared in a common environment. Canadian Journal of Fisheries & Aquatic Sciences 61, 2314-2328.
148. Oppedal, F., Taranger, G.L., & Hansen, T. (2003) Growth performance and sexual maturation in diploid and triploid Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) in seawater tanks exposed to continuous light or simulated natural photoperiod. Aquaculture 215, 145-162.
149. Orpwood, J.E., Griffiths, S.W., & Armstrong, J.D. (2006) Effects of food availability on temporal activity patterns and growth of Atlantic salmon. Journal of Animal Ecology 75, 677-685.
150. Ostrovsky, I. (1995) The parabolic pattern of animal growth: Determination of equation parameters and their temperature dependencies. Freshwater Biology 33, 357-371.
151. Pauly, D. (1981) The relationship between gill surface area and growth performance in fish: a generalization of the von Bertalanffy's theory of growth. Journal du Conceil-conceil permanent pour l'Exploration de la Mer 39, 251-282.
152. Persson, L., Byström, P., Wahlström, E., et al. (2000) Resource limitation during early ontogeny: constraints induced by growth capacity in larval and juvenile fish. Oecologia 122, 459-469.
153. Peyronnet, A., Friedland, K.D., Maoiléidigh, N.O., et al. (2007) Links between patterns of marine growth and survival of Atlantic salmon Salmo salar, L. Journal of Fish Biology 71, 684-700.
154. Poff, N.L., & Huryn, A.D. (1998) Multi-scale determinants of secondary production in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) streams. Canadian Journal of Fisheries & Aquatic Sciences 55 (SUPPL. 1), 201-217.
155. Ratkowsky, D.A., Lowry, R.K., McMeekin, T.A., et al. (1983) Model for bacterial culture growth rate throughout the entire biokinetic temperature range. Journal of Bacteriology 154, 1222-1226.
156. Reddin, D.G., & Shearer, W.M. (1987) Sea-surface temperature and distribution of Atlantic salmon in the northwest Atlantic. American Fisheries Society Symposium 1, 262-275.
157. Rikardsen, A.H., & Dempson, J.B. (2011) Dietary life-support: the food and feeding of Atlantic salmon at sea. Chapter 5 in Atlantic Salmon Ecology (eds Ø. Aas, S. Einum, A. Klemetsen & J. Skurdal). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
158. Roff, D.A. (1992) The Evolution of Life Histories. New York: Chapman & Hall.
159. Salminen, M. (1997) Relationships between smolt size, postsmolt growth and sea age at maturity in Atlantic salmon ranched in the Baltic Sea. Journal of Applied Ichthyology 13, 121-130.
160. Sheehan, T.F., Kocik, J.F., Cadrin, S.X., et al. (2005) Marine growth and Morphometrics for three populations of Atlantic salmon from Easterns Maine, USA. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 134, 775-788.
161. Sigourney, D.B., Letcher, B.H., Obedzinski, M., et al. (2008) Size-independent growth in fishes: patterns, models and metrics. Journal of Fish Biology 72, 2435-2455.
162. Skilbrei, O.T. (1990) Compensatory sea growth of male Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., which previously mature as parr. Journal of Fish Biology 37, 425-435.
163. Sundt-Hansen, L., Sundström, L.F., Einum, S., et al. (2007) Genetically enhanced growth causes increased mortality in hypoxic environments. Biology Letters 3, 165-168.
164. Thorpe, J.E., Talbot, C., & Villarreal, C. (1982) Bimodality of growth and smolting in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L. Aquaculture 28, 123-132.
165. Todd, C.D., Hughes, S.L., Marshall, C.T., et al. (2008) Detrimental effects of recent ocean surface warming on growth conditions of Atlantic salmon. Global Change Biology 14, 958-970.
166. Todd, C.D, Friedland, K.D., Hazon, N., et al. (2011) Atlantic salmon reponses to climate change in freshwater and marine environments. Chapter 16 in Atlantic Salmon Ecology (eds Ø. Aas, S. Einum, A. Klemetsen, & J. Skurdal). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
167. Ugedal, O., Forseth, T., & Jonsson, B. (1997) A functional model of radiocesium turnover in brown trout. Ecological Application 7, 1002-1016.
168. Valdimarsson, S.K., & Metcalfe, N.B. (1998) Shelter selection in juvenile Atlantic salmon or why do salmon seek shelter in winter? Journal of Fish Biology 52, 42-49.
169. Vøllestad, L.A., Olsen, E.M., & Forseth, T. (2002) Growth-rate variation in brown trout in small neighbouring streams: evidence for density-dependence? Journal of Fish Biology 61, 1513-1527.
170. von Bertalanffy, L. (1938) A quantitative theory of organic growth (inquiries on growth laws). II. Human Biology 10, 181-213.
171. Wankowski, J.W.J, & Thorpe, J.E. (1979) The role of food particle size in the growth of juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). Journal of Fish Biology 14, 351-370.
172. Ward, D.D., Nislow, K.H., Armstrong, J.D., et al. (2007) Is the shape of the density-growth relationship for stream salmonids evidence for exploitative rather than interference competition? Journal of Animal Ecology 76, 135-138.
173. Weatherley, A.H., & Gill, H.S. (1981) Recovery following periods of restricted rations and starvation in rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri Richardson. Journal of Fish Biology 18, 195-208.
174. Webb, J.H., & McLay, H.A. (1996) Variation in the time of spawning of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and its relationship to temperature in the Aberdeenshire Dee, Scotland. Canadian Journal of Fisheries & Aquatic Sciences 53, 2739-2744.
175. Wells, B.K., Friedland, K.D., & Clarke, L.M. (2003) Increment patterns in otoliths and scales from mature Atlantic salmon Salmo salar. Marine Ecology-Progress Series 262, 293-298.
176. Whalen, K.G., Parrish, D.L., Mather, M.E., et al. (2000) Cross-tributary analysis of parr to smolt recruitment of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Canadian Journal of Fisheries & Aquatic Sciences 57, 1607-1616.
177. Wilson, P.N., & Osburn, D.F. (1960) Compensatory growth after undernutrition in mammals and birds. Biological Review of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 35, 324-363.
178. Wootton, R.J. (1998) Ecology of Teleost Fishes, 2nd edn. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.