Why is there a gender earnings gap in self-employment? A decomposition analysis with German data

IZA Journal of European Labor Studies

Volumn 1, Issue 1, 2012, Pages

  Lechmann, Daniel Sj ^a   Schnabel, Claus ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ERLANGEN NUREMBERG   (Germany)

Author keywords

Earnings differential; Gender pay gap; Germany; Self employment

Indexed keywords

EID: 84983314977     PISSN: None     EISSN: 21939012     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1186/2193-9012-1-6     Document Type: Article

References (47)

1. Altonji JG, Blank RM: Race and gender in the labor market. In Handbook of labor economics. Edited by: Card D, Ashenfelter OC. North-Holland, Amsterdam; 1999:3143–3259.
2. Álvarez G, Gradín C, Otero MS: Self-employment in Spain: transition and earnings differential. Universidade de Vigo, Departamento Economía Aplicada Documento de Traballo 0907, Vigo; 2009.
3. Aronson RL: Self-employment. A labor market perspective. ILR Press, Ithaca, NY; 1991.
4. Asiedu E, Freeman JA, Nti-Addae A: Access to credit by small businesses: How relevant are race, ethnicity, and gender? Am Econ Rev 2012, 102: 532–537.
5. Åstebro T: The returns to entrepreneurship. In The Oxford handbook of entrepreneurial finance. Edited by: Cumming D. Oxford University Press, New York; 2012.
6. Åstebro T, Thompson P: Entrepreneurs, jacks of all trades or hobos? Res Policy 2011, 40: 637–649.
7. Becker GS: Human capital, effort, and the sexual division of labor. J Labor Econ 1985, 3: 33–58.
8. Blinder AS: Wage discrimination: Reduced form and structural estimates. J Hum Resour 1973, 8: 436–455.
9. Boden RJ: Flexible working hours, family responsibilities, and female self-employment. Am J Econ Sociol 1999, 58: 71–83.
10. Caliendo M, Kritikos AS: Searching for the entrepreneurial personality: New evidence and avenues for further research. J Econ Psychol 2012, 33: 319–324.
11. Coleman S: Access to capital and terms of credit: A comparison of men- and women-owned small businesses. J Small Bus Manage 2000, 38: 37–52.
12. Du Rietz A, Henrekson M: Testing the female underperformance hypothesis. Small Bus Econ 2000, 14: 1–10.
13. Eastough K, Miller PW: The gender wage gap in paid- and self-employment in Australia. Aust Econ Pap 2004, 43: 257–276.
14. European Commission The gender balance in business leadership. In Report on progress on equality between women and men in 2010. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg; 2011.
15. Fabowale L, Orser B, Riding A: Gender, structural factors, and credit terms between Canadian small businesses and financial institutions. Entrep Theory Pract 1995, 19: 41–65.
16. Fairlie RW, Robb AM: Gender differences in business performance: Evidence from the characteristics of business owners survey. Small Bus Econ 2009, 33: 375–395.
17. Fischer EM, Reuber AR, Dyke LS: A theoretical overview and extension of research on sex, gender, and entrepreneurship. J Bus Venturing 1993, 8: 151–168.
18. Fortin N, Lemieux T, Firpo S: Decomposition methods in economics. In Handbook of labor economics. Edited by: Ashenfelter OC, Card D. North-Holland, Amsterdam; 2011:1–102.
19. Gather C, Schmidt T, Ulbricht S: Der Gender Income Gap bei den Selbstständigen – Empirische Befunde. In Prekäres unternehmertum. Edited by: Bührmann AD, Pongratz HJ. Unsicherheiten von selbstständiger Erwerbstätigkeit und Unternehmensgründung, VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden; 2010.
20. Gerlach I, Damhus C: Berufliche Selbständigkeit als Strategie zur Vereinbarkeit von Beruf und Familie? Übersicht zum Stand der Forschung. Forschungszentrum Familienbewusste Personalpolitik Arbeitspapier 6, Berlin, Münster; 2010.
21. Gottschalk S, Niefert M: Gender differences in business success of German start-up firms. ZEW Discussion Paper 11–019, Mannheim; 2011.
22. Hall A, Tiemann M: BIBB/BAuA employment survey of the working population on qualification and working conditions in Germany 2006, suf_1.0. Research data center at BIBB (ed), GESIS cologne, Germany (data access). Federal Institute of Vocational Education and Training, Bonn; 2006.
23. Heckman JJ: Sample selection bias as a specification error. Econometrica 1979, 47: 153–161.
24. Hundley G: Male/female earnings differences in self-Employment: The effects of marriage, children, and the household division of labor. Ind Labor Relat Rev 2000, 54: 95–114.
25. Hundley G: Why women earn less than men in self-employment. J Labor Res 2001, 22: 817–829.
26. Jungbauer-Gans M: Der Lohnunterschied zwischen Frauen und Männern in selbständiger und abhängiger Beschäftigung. Koln Z Soziol Sozialpsych 1999, 51: 364–390.
27. Konietzko T: Self-employed individuals, time use, and earnings. Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Chair of Labour and Regional Economics Discussion Paper 78, Nuremberg; 2012.
28. Lauxen-Ulbrich M, Leicht R: Wie Frauen gründen und was sie unternehmen: Nationaler Report Deutschland. Statistiken über Gründerinnen und selbständige Frauen. Institut für Mittelstandsforschung, University of Mannheim, Mannheim, Teilprojekt; 2005.
29. Lazear EP: Balanced skills and entrepreneurship. Am Econ Rev 2004, 94: 208–211.
30. Leung D: The male/female earnings gap and female self-employment. J Socio-Econ 2006, 35: 759–779.
31. Lombard KV: Female self-employment and demand for flexible, nonstandard work schedules. Econ Inq 2001, 39: 214–237.
32. Minniti M: Gender issues in entrepreneurship. Found Trends Entrep 2009, 5: 497–621.
33. Moore RL: Employer discrimination: Evidence from self-employed workers. Rev Econ Stat 1983, 65: 496–501.
34. Oaxaca R: Male–female wage differentials in urban labor markets. Int Econ Rev 1973, 14: 693–709.
35. Orser BJ, Riding AL, Manley K: Women entrepreneurs and financial capital. Entrep Theory Pract 2006, 30: 643–665.
36. Parker SC: The economics of entrepreneurship. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK; New York; 2009.
37. Puhani P: The Heckman correction for sample selection and its critique. J Econ Surv 2000, 14: 53–68.
38. Rybczynski K: Are liquidity constraints holding women back? An analysis of gender in self-employment earnings. J Econ Asymmetries 2009, 6: 141–165.
39. Semykina A, Linz SJ: Gender differences in personality and earnings: Evidence from Russia. J Econ Psychol 2007, 28: 387–410.
40. Tansel A: Wage earners, self-employed and gender in the informal sector in Turkey. 2000. Available via SSRN. http://ssrn.com/abstract=263275. Accessed 19 September 2012
41. Tiemann M, Schade H-J, Helmrich R, Hall A, Braun U, Bott P: Berufsfeld-Definitionen des BIBB auf Basis der Klassifikation der Berufe 1992. Wissenschaftliche Diskussionspapiere des BIBB 105, Bonn; 2008.
42. Verheul I, Thurik R: Start-up capital: “Does gender matter?”. Small Bus Econ 2001, 16: 329–346.
43. Walker JR: Earnings, effort, and work flexibility of self-employed women and men: the case of St. Croix county, Wisconsin. J Labor Res 2009, 30: 269–288.
44. Weichselbaumer D, Winter-Ebmer R: A meta-analysis of the international gender wage gap. J Econ Surv 2005, 19: 479–511.
45. Williams DR: Consequences of self-employment for women and men in the United States. Labour Econ 2000, 7: 665–687.
46. Williams DR: Returns to education and experience in self-employment: evidence from Germany. Schmollers Jahrb 2003, 123: 139–150.
47. Zopf S, Tiemann M: BIBB/BAuA-employment survey 2005/06. Schmollers Jahrb 2010, 130: 409–420.