Too much, too soon? A review of the effects of increasing wildfire frequency on tree mortality and regeneration in temperate eucalypt forests

International Journal of Wildland Fire

Volumn 25, Issue 8, 2016, Pages 831-848

  Fairman, Thomas A ^a   Nitschke, Craig R ^a   Bennett, Lauren T ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE   (Australia)

Author keywords

alternative stable states; cumulative impacts; Eucalyptus; fire regimes; fire severity; forest dynamics; natural disturbances; temperate forest; wildfire.

Indexed keywords

EID: 84982957827     PISSN: 10498001     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1071/WF15010     Document Type: Review

References (202)

1. ABARES (Australian Bureau of Agriculture and Resources Economics and Sciences) (2013) Australia's State of the Forests Report 2013, Canberra.
2. Acácio V, Holmgren M, Rego F, Moreira F, Mohren GMJ (2009) Are drought and wildfires turning Mediterranean cork oak forests into persistent shrublands Agroforestry Systems 76, 389-400. doi:10. 1007/ S10457-008-9165-Y
3. Adams MA (2013) Mega-fires, tipping points and ecosystem services: managing forests and woodlands in an uncertain future. Forest Ecology and Management 294, 250-261. doi:10. 1016/J. FORECO. 2012. 11. 039
4. Adams M, Attiwill P (2011) 'Burning Issues: Sustainability and Management of Australia's Southern Forests. ' (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne, Vic.).
5. Adams MA, Cunningham SC, Taranto MT (2013) A critical review of the science underpinning fire management in the high altitude ecosystems of south-eastern Australia. Forest Ecology and Management 294, 225-237. doi:10. 1016/J. FORECO. 2012. 10. 042
6. Anadón JD, Sala OE, Maestre FT (2014) Climate change will increase savannas at the expense of forests and treeless vegetation in tropical and subtropical Americas. Journal of Ecology 102, 1363-1373. doi:10. 1111/ 1365-2745. 12325
7. Ashton DH (1958) The ecology of Eucalyptus regnans F. Muell: The species and its frost resistance. Australian Journal of Botany 6, 154-176. doi:10. 1071/BT9580154
8. Ashton DH (1975) Studies of flowering behaviour in Eucalyptus regnans F. Muell. Australian Journal of Botany 23, 399-411. doi:10. 1071/ BT9750399
9. Ashton DH (1976) The development of even-aged stands of Eucalyptus regnans F. Muell. in central Victoria. Australian Journal of Botany 24, 397-414. doi:10. 1071/BT9760397
10. Ashton DH (1981) The ecology of the boundary between Eucalyptus regnans and E. obliqua in Victoria. Proceedings of the Ecological Society of Australia 11, 75-94.
11. Ashton DH (1986) Viability of seeds of Eucalyptus obliqua and Leptospermum juniperinum from capsules subjected to a crown fire. Australian Forestry 49, 28-35. doi:10. 1080/00049158. 1986. 10674460
12. Ashton DH (2000a) The Big Ash forest, Wallaby Creek, Victoria-changes during one lifetime. Australian Journal of Botany 48, 1-26. doi:10. 1071/ BT98045
13. AshtonDH (2000b) The environment and plant ecology of the Hume Range, central Victoria. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria 112, 185-278.
14. Ashton DH, Attiwill PM (1994) Tall open-forests. In 'Australian Vegetation' (Ed. RH Groves) pp. 157-196. (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK)
15. Ashton DH, Chappill JA (1989) secondary succession in post-fire scrub dominated by Acacia verticillata (L'HCrit.) Willd. At Wilsons Promontory, Victoria. Australian Journal of Botany 37, 1-18. doi:10. 1071/ BT9890001
16. Ashton DH, Martin DG (1996a) Changes in a spar-stage ecotonal forest of Eucalyptus regnans, Eucalyptus obliqua and Eucalyptus cypellocarpa following wildfire on the Hume Range in November 1982. Australian Forestry 59, 32-41. doi:10. 1080/00049158. 1996. 10674666
17. Ashton DH, Martin DG (1996b) Regeneration in a pole-stage forest of Eucalyptus regnans subjected to different fire intensities in 1982. Australian Journal of Botany 44, 393-410. doi:10. 1071/ BT9960393
18. Ashton DH, Turner JS (1979) Studies on the light compensation point of Eucalyptus regnans F. Muell. Australian Journal of Botany 27, 589-607. doi:10. 1071/BT9790589
19. Attiwill PM (1994) Ecological disturbance and the conservative management of eucalypt forests in Australia. Forest Ecology and Management 63, 301-346. doi:10. 1016/0378-1127(94)90115-5
20. Attiwill PM (2013) Exploring the mega-fire reality: A 'forest ecology and management' conference. Forest Ecology and Management 294, 1-3. doi:10. 1016/J. FORECO. 2012. 12. 025
21. Attiwill PM, Ryan MF, Burrows N, Cheney NP, McCaw L, Neyland M (2014) Logging and fire in Australian forests: misinterpretation, data and models, and a response to Bradstock & Price. Conservation Letters 7, 421-422. doi:10. 1111/CONL. 12104
22. Bassett OD, Prior LD, Slijkerman C, Jamieson D, Bowman DMJS (2015) Aerial sowing stopped the loss of alpine ash (Eucalyptus delegatensis) forests burnt by three short-interval fires in the Alpine National Park, Victoria, Australia. Forest Ecology and Management 342, 39-42. doi:10. 1016/J. FORECO. 2015. 01. 008
23. Begon M, Townsend CR, Harper JL (2006) 'Ecology: From Individuals to Ecosystems. ' (Blackwell Publishing: Melbourne).
24. Beisner B, Haydon D, Cuddington K (2003) Alternative stable states in ecology. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 1, 376-382. doi:10. 1890/1540-9295(2003)001[0376:ASSIE]2. 0. CO;2
25. Bennett LT, Adams MA (2004a) Ecological effects of harvesting in Victoria's native forests: quantification of research outputs. Australian Forestry 67, 212-221. doi:10. 1080/00049158. 2004. 10674937
26. Bennett LT, Adams MA (2004b) Assessment of ecological effects due to forest harvesting: Approaches and statistical issues. Journal of Applied Ecology 41, 585-598. doi:10. 1111/J. 0021-8901. 2004. 00924. X
27. Bennett LT, Aponte C, Baker TG, Tolhurst KG (2014) Evaluating longterm effects of prescribed fire regimes on carbon stocks in a temperate eucalypt forest. Forest Ecology and Management 328, 219-228. doi:10. 1016/J. FORECO. 2014. 05. 028
28. Benyon RG, Lane PNJ (2013) Ground and satellite-based assessments of wet eucalypt forest survival and regeneration for predicting long-term hydrological responses to a large wildfire. Forest Ecology and Management 294, 197-207. doi:10. 1016/J. FORECO. 2012. 04. 003
29. Bond WJ (2008) What limits trees in C4 grasslands and savannas Annual Review of Ecology Evolution and Systematics 39, 641-659. doi:10. 1146/ ANNUREV. ECOLSYS. 39. 110707. 173411
30. Bond WJ (2010) Do nutrient-poor soils inhibit development of forests A nutrient stock analysis. Plant and Soil 334, 47-60. doi:10. 1007/ S11104-010-0440-0
31. Bond W, Keeley J (2005) Fire as global 'herbivore': The ecology and evolution of flammable ecosystems. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 20, 387-394. doi:10. 1016/J. TREE. 2005. 04. 025
32. Bond WJ, Midgley JJ (2001) Ecology of sprouting in woody plants: The persistence niche. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 16, 45-51. doi:10. 1016/S0169-5347(00)02033-4
33. Bond WJ, Woodward FI, Midgley GF (2005) The global distribution of ecosystems in a world without fire. New Phytologist 165, 525-538. doi:10. 1111/J. 1469-8137. 2004. 01252. X
34. Bond WJ, Cook GD, Williams RJ (2012) Which trees dominate in savannas The escape hypothesis and eucalypts in northern Australia. Austral Ecology 37, 678-685. doi:10. 1111/J. 1442-9993. 2011. 02343. X
35. Bowman DMJS, Wood SW (2009) Fire-driven land cover change in Australia and W. D. Jackson's theory of the fire ecology of southwest Tasmania. In 'Tropical Fire Ecology: Climate Change, Land Use, and Ecosystem Dynamics' (Ed. MCochrane) pp. 87-111. (Springer: Berlin).
36. Bowman DMJS, Balch JK, Artaxo P, Bond WJ, Carlson JM, Cochrane MA, D'Antonio CM, DeFries RS (2009) Fire in the Earth system. Science 324, 481-484. doi:10. 1126/SCIENCE. 1163886
37. Bowman DMJS, Murphy BP, Boer MM, Bradstock RA, Cary GJ, Cochrane MA, Fensham RJ, Krawchuk MA, Price OF, Williams RJ (2013) Forest fire management, climate change, and the risk of catastrophic carbon losses. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 11, 66-67. doi:10. 1890/13. WB. 005
38. Bowman DMJS, Murphy BP, Neyland DLJ, Williamson GJ, Prior LD (2014) Abrupt fire regime change may cause landscape-wide loss of mature obligate seeder forests. Global Change Biology 20, 1008-1015. doi:10. 1111/GCB. 12433
39. Bradford JB, Fraver S, Milo AM, D'Amato AW, Palik B, Shinneman DJ (2012) Effects of multiple interacting disturbances and salvage logging on forest carbon stocks. Forest Ecology and Management 267, 209-214. doi:10. 1016/J. FORECO. 2011. 12. 010
40. Bradstock RA (2010) A biogeographic model of fire regimes in Australia: current and future implications. Global Ecology and Biogeography 19, 145-158. doi:10. 1111/J. 1466-8238. 2009. 00512. X
41. Bradstock RA, Myerscough PJ (1988) The survival and population response to frequent fires of two woody resprouters Banksia serrata and Zsopogon anemonifolius. Australian Journal of Botany 36, 415-431. doi:10. 1071/ BT9880415
42. Buma B, Wessman C (2012) Differential species responses to compounded perturbations and implications for landscape heterogeneity and resilience. Forest Ecology and Management 266, 25-33. doi:10. 1016/ J. FORECO. 2011. 10. 040
43. Buma B, Brown CD, Donato DC, Fontaine JB, Johnstone JF (2013) The impacts of changing disturbance regimes on serotinous plant populations and communities. Bioscience 63, 866-876. doi:10. 1525/ BIO. 2013. 63. 11. 5
44. Buma B, Poore RE, Wessman C (2014) Disturbances, their interactions, and cumulative effects on carbon and charcoal stocks in a forested ecosystem. Ecosystems 17, 947-959. doi:10. 1007/S10021-014-9770-8
45. Burrows GE (2013) Buds, bushfires and resprouting in the eucalypts. Australian Journal of Botany 61, 331-349. doi:10. 1071/BT13072
46. Burrows N, Wardell-JohnsonG(2003) Fire and plant interactions in forested ecosystems of south-west Western Australia. In 'Fire in Ecosystems of South-west Western Australia: Impacts and Management', (Eds. I Abbott, N Burrows) pp. 225-268. (Backhuys Publishers: Leiden).
47. Chappill JA (1980) The status of Acacia verticillata Scrub at Wilson's Promontory. Honours thesis, The University of Melbourne.
48. Clarke HG, Smith PL, Pitman AJ (2011) Regional signatures of future fire weather over eastern Australia from global climate models. International Journal of Wildland Fire 20, 550-562. doi:10. 1071/ WF10070
49. Clarke PJ, Lawes MJ, Midgley JJ, Lamont BB, Ojeda F, Burrows GE, Enright NJ, Knox KJE (2013a) Resprouting as a key functional trait: how buds, protection and resources drive persistence after fire. New Phytologist 197, 19-35. doi:10. 1111/NPH. 12001
50. Clarke HG, Lucas C, Smith P (2013b) Changes in Australian fire weather between 1973 and 2010. International Journal of Climatology 33, 931-944. doi:10. 1002/JOC. 3480
51. Clarke PJ, Lawes MJ, MurphyBP, Russell-Smith J, Nano CEM, BradstockR, Enright NJ, Fontaine JB, Gosper CR, Radford I, Midgley JJ, Gunton RM (2015) A synthesis of postfire recovery traits of woody plants in Australian ecosystems The Science of the Total Environment. doi:10. 1016/J. SCITOTENV. 2015. 04. 002
52. Collins BM, Kelly M, Wagtendonk JW, Stephens SL (2007) Spatial patterns of large natural fires in Sierra Nevada wilderness areas. Landscape Ecology 22, 545-557. doi:10. 1007/S10980-006-9047-5
53. Connell JH, Sousa WP (1983) On the evidence needed to judge ecological stability or persistence. The American Naturalist 121, 789-824. doi:10. 1086/284105
54. Conversi A, Dakos V, Gardmark A, Ling S, Folke C, Mumby PJ, Greene C, Edwards M, Blenckner T, Casini M, Pershing A, Mollmann C (2015) A holistic view of marine regime shifts. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences 370(1659), 20130279. doi:10. 1098/RSTB. 2013. 0279
55. Costermans L (2009) 'Native Trees and Shrubs of South-Eastern Australia. ' (New Holland: Melbourne).
56. Cremer KW (1960) Problems of eucalypt regeneration in the Florentine Valley. Appita 14, 71-78.
57. Cremer KW (1962) The effect of fire on eucalypts reserved for seeding. Australian Forestry 26, 129-154. doi:10. 1080/00049158. 1962. 10675921
58. Crisp MD, Burrows GE, Cook LG, Thornhill AH, Bowman DM (2011) Flammable biomes dominated by eucalypts originated at the Cretaceous-Palaeogene boundary. Nature Communications 2, 19-3. doi:10. 1038/NCOMMS1191
59. Crockatt ME, Bebber DP (2014) Edge effects on moisture reduce wood decomposition rate in a temperate forest. Global Change Biology 21, 698-707.
60. Cruz MG, Sullivan AL, Gould JS, Sims NC, Bannister AJ, Hollis JJ, Hurley RJ (2012) Anatomy of a catastrophic wildfire: The Black Saturday Kilmore East fire in Victoria, Australia. Forest Ecology and Management 284, 269-285. doi:10. 1016/J. FORECO. 2012. 02. 035
61. Cunningham TM (1960) The natural regeneration of Eucalyptus regnans. Bulletin No. 1. (Melbourne University Publishing: Melbourne, Vic.).
62. Davies JB, Oates AM (1999) Ecological Vegetation Class mapping of Wilsons Promontory and adjacent islands, Department of Natural Resources & Environment, Technical Report (Melbourne, Vic.).
63. DeBano LF, Neary DG, Ffolliott PF (1998) 'Fire Effects on Ecosystems' (Wiley: New York).
64. Dietze MC, Clark JS, Monographs E, Clark S (2008) Changing the gap dynamics paradigm: vegetative regeneration control on forest response to disturbance. Ecological Monographs 78, 331-347. doi:10. 1890/07-0271. 1
65. Dignan P, King M, Saveneh A, Walters M (1998) The regeneration of Eucalyptus regnans F. Muell. under retained overwood: seedling growth and density. Forest Ecology and Management 102, 1-7. doi:10. 1016/ S0378-1127(97)00114-X
66. Dingle T, Rasmussen C (1991) 'Vital Connections: Melbourne and its Board of Works. ' (Penguin: Melbourne).
67. DSE (Department of Sustainability & Environment) (2009) Remote sensing guideline for assessing landscape scale fire severity in Victoria's forest estate, Version 1. 4 (unpublished Technical Report). (Melbourne, Vic.).
68. Enright NJ, Fontaine JB, Lamont BB, Miller BP, Westcott VC (2014) Resistance and resilience to changing climate and fire regime depend on plant functional traits. Journal of Ecology 102, 1572-1581. doi:10. 1111/ 1365-2745. 12306
69. Enright NJ, Fontaine JB, Bowman DMJS, Bradstock RA, Williams RJ (2015) Interval squeeze: Altered fire regimes and demographic responses interact to threaten woody species persistence as climate changes. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 13, 265-272. doi:10. 1890/ 140231
70. Fagg P, Lutze M, Slijkerman C, Ryan M, Bassett O (2013) Silvicultural recovery in ash forests following three recent large bushfires in Victoria. Australian Forestry 76, 140-155. doi:10. 1080/00049158. 2013. 848610
71. FCV (Forests Commission of Victoria) (1939) Forests Commission of Victoria Australia: Twentieth annual report 1938-39, 17 (State of Victoria: Melbourne).
72. Ferguson I (2011) Strategic seedbanks to meet fire risks for Victorian ashtype species. Australian Forestry 74, 97-107. doi:10. 1080/00049158. 2011. 10676351
73. Ferguson I, Cheney P (2011) Wildfires, not logging, cause landscape traps. Australian Forestry 74, 362-365.
74. Flannigan M, Cantin AS, de Groot WJ, Wotton M, Newbery A, Gowman LM (2013) Global wildland fire season severity in the 21st century. Forest Ecology and Management 294, 54-61. doi:10. 1016/J. FORECO. 2012. 10. 022
75. Fletcher M-S, Wood SW, Haberle SG (2014)A fire-driven shift from forest to non-forest: evidence for alternative stable states Ecology 95, 2504-2513. doi:10. 1890/12-1766. 1
76. Flint A, Fagg P (2007) 'Mountain ash in Victoria's State Forests. ' (Department of Sustainability and Environment: Melbourne, Vic.).
77. Florence R (1996) 'Ecology and Silviculture of Eucalypt Forests. ' (CSIRO Publishing: Collingwood).
78. Folke C, Carpenter S, Walker B, Scheffer M, Elmqvist T, Gunderson L, Holling CS (2004) Regime shifts, resilience, and biodiversity in ecosystem management. Annual Review of Ecology Evolution and Systematics 35, 557-581. doi:10. 1146/ANNUREV. ECOLSYS. 35. 021103. 105711
79. Franklin JF, Johnson KN (2011) Societal challenges in understanding and responding to regime shifts in forest landscapes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 108, 16863-16864. doi:10. 1073/PNAS. 1114045108
80. Gill AM (1975) Fire and the Australian flora: A review. Australian Forestry 38, 4-25. doi:10. 1080/00049158. 1975. 10675618
81. Gill AM (1981) Adaptive responses of Australian vascular plant species to fires. In 'Fire and the Australian Biota. ' (Eds A Gill, RH Groves, IR Noble) pp. 243-272. (Australian Academy of Science: Canberra).
82. Gill AM (1997) Eucalyptus and fires: interdependent or independent In 'Eucalypt Ecology: Individuals to Ecosystems' (Eds JE Williams, JCZ Woinarski) pp. 151-167. (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK).
83. Gill AM, Allan G (2008) Large fires, fire effects and the fire-regime concept. International Journal of Wildland Fire 17, 688-695. doi:10. 1071/WF07145
84. Gill AM, AshtonDH (1968) The role of bark type in relative tolerance to fire of three central Victorian eucalypts. Australian Journal of Botany 16, 491-498. doi:10. 1071/BT9680491
85. Girardin MP, Ali AA, Hély C (2010) Wildfires in boreal ecosystems: past, present and some emerging trends. International Journal of Wildland Fire 19, 991-995. doi:10. 1071/WFV19N8-FO
86. Gray D (2013) Fluke of fire behaviour spares kings of the forest. The Age, 4 February 2013. Available at http://www. Theage. com. Au/victoria/flukeof-fire-behaviour-spares-kings-of-the-forest-20130203-2dsmv. html [Verified 27 July 2015].
87. Greene DF, Johnson E (1995) Long-distance wind dispersal of tree seeds. Canadian Journal of Botany 73, 1036-1045. doi:10. 1139/B95-113
88. Griffin AR (1980) Floral phenology of a stand of mountain ash (Eucalyptus regnans F. Muell.) in Gippsland, Victoria. Australian Journal of Botany 28, 393-404. doi:10. 1071/BT9800393
89. Griffin AR, Eldridge KG (1980) A field trial of progeny of trees intermediate between Eucalyptus regnans and E. obliqua. Australian Forest Research 10, 1-8.
90. Grose RJ (1960) Effective seed supply for the natural regeneration of Eucalyptus delegatensis R. T. Baker, Syn Eucalyptus gigantea Hook. F. Appita 13, 141-148.
91. Grubb PJ (1977) The maintenance of species-richness in plant communities: The importance of the regeneration niche. Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 52, 107-145. doi:10. 1111/J. 1469-185X. 1977. TB01347. X
92. Hammill KA, Bradstock RA (2006) Remote sensing of fire severity in the Blue Mountains: influence of vegetation type and inferring fire intensity International Journal of Wildland Fire 15, 213-226. doi:10. 1071/ WF05051
93. Hansen J, Kharecha P, Sato M, Masson-Delmotte V, Ackerman F, Beerling DJ, Hearty PJ, Hoegh-Guldberg O, Hsu S-L, Parmesan C, Rockstrom J, Rohling EJ, Sachs J, Smith P, Steffen K, Van Susteren L, von Schuckmann K, Zachos JC (2013) Assessing 'dangerous climate change': required reduction of carbon emissions to protect young people, future generations and nature. PLoS One 8, e81648. doi:10. 1371/ JOURNAL. PONE. 0081648
94. Higgins SI, Bond WJ, Combrink H, Craine JM, February EC, Govender N, Lannas K, Moncreiff G, Trollope WSW (2012) Which traits determine shifts in the abundance of tree species in a fire-prone savanna Journal of Ecology 100, 1400-1410. doi:10. 1111/J. 1365-2745. 2012. 02026. X
95. Hirota M, Holmgren M, Van Nes EH, SchefferM (2011) Global resilience of tropical forest and savanna to critical transitions. Science 334, 232-235. doi:10. 1126/SCIENCE. 1210657
96. Hoffmann WA, Geiger EL, Gotsch SG, Rossatto DR, Silva LCR, Lau OL, Haridasan M, Franco AC (2012) Ecological thresholds at the savanna-forest boundary: how plant traits, resources and fire govern the distribution of tropical biomes. Ecology Letters 15, 759-768. doi:10. 1111/ J. 1461-0248. 2012. 01789. X
97. Holling CS (1973) Resilience and stability of ecological systems. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 4, 1-23. doi:10. 1146/ANNUREV. ES. 04. 110173. 000245
98. Hopmans P (2003) Effects of repeated low-intensity fire on carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus of a mixed eucalypt foothill forest in south-eastern Australia. Department of Sustainability and Environment, Fire Research Report 60, pp. 1-34. (Melbourne, Vic.).
99. House SM (1997) Reproductive biology of eucalypts. In 'Eucalypt ecology: individuals to ecosystems'. (Eds J Williams, J Woinarski) pp. 30-35. (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK).
100. Howe HF, Smallwood J (1982) Ecology of seed dispersal. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 13, 201-228. doi:10. 1146/ANNUREV. ES. 13. 110182. 001221
101. Jackson WD (1968) Fire, air, water and earth-an elemental ecology of Tasmania. Proceedings of the Ecological Society of Australia 3, 9-16.
102. Jacobs MR (1955) 'Growth Habits of the Eucalypts'. (Forestry & Timber Bureau, CSIRO: Canberra).
103. Jarrett PH, Petrie AHK (1929) The vegetation of the Blacks' Spur Region: A study in the ecology of some Australian mountain Eucalyptus forests: II. pyric succession Journal of Ecology 17, 249-281. doi:10. 2307/2256043
104. Johnstone JF, Chapin FS, Hollingsworth TN, Mack MC, Romanovsky V, TuretskyM (2010) Fire, climate change, and forest resilience in interior Alaska. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 40, 1302-1312. doi:10. 1139/X10-061
105. Jones CS, Duncan DH, Rumpff L, Thomas FM, Morris WK, Vesk PA (2015) Empirically validating a dense woody regrowth 'problem' and thinning 'solution' for understory vegetation. Forest Ecology and Management 340, 153-162. doi:10. 1016/J. FORECO. 2014. 12. 006
106. Kasischke ES, Amiro BD, Barger NN, French NHF, Goetz SJ, Grosse G, Harmon ME, Hicke J, Liu S, Masek JG (2013) Impacts of disturbance on the terrestrial carbon budget of North America. Journal of Geophysical Research. Biogeosciences 118, 303-316. doi:10. 1002/JGRG. 20027
107. Keeley JE (2009) Fire intensity, fire severity and burn severity: A brief review and suggested usage. International Journal of Wildland Fire 18, 116-126. doi:10. 1071/WF07049
108. Keeley JE, Ne'eman G, Fotheringham CJ (1999) Immaturity risk in a fire dependent pine. Journal of Mediterranean Ecology 1, 41-48.
109. Keeley JE, Pausas JG, Rundel PW, Bond WJ, Bradstock RA (2011) Fire as an evolutionary pressure shaping plant traits. Trends in Plant Science 16, 406-411. doi:10. 1016/J. TPLANTS. 2011. 04. 002
110. Keith D (1996) Fire-driven extinction of plant populations: A synthesis of theory and review of evidence from Australian vegetation. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales 116, 37-78.
111. King KJ, Cary GJ, Bradstock RA, Marsden-Smedley JB (2013) Contrasting fire responses to climate and management: insights from two Australian ecosystems. Global Change Biology 19, 1223-1235. doi:10. 1111/GCB. 12115
112. Knox KJE, Morrison DA (2005) Effects of inter-fire intervals on the reproductive output of resprouters and obligate seeders in the Proteaceae. Austral Ecology 30, 407-413. doi:10. 1111/J. 1442-9993. 2005. 01482. X
113. Lamont BB, Maitre DC, Cowling RM, Enright NJ (1991) Canopy seed storage in woody plants. Botanical Review 57, 277-317. doi:10. 1007/ BF02858770
114. Laurance WF, Dell B, Turton SM, Lawes MJ, Hutley LB, McCallume H, Dale P, Bird M, Hardy G, Prideaux G, Gawne B, McMahon CR, Yu R, Hero J-M, Schwarzkopf L, KrockenbergerA, Setterfield SA, Douglas M, SilvesterE, Mahonyl M, VellamK, Saikia U, WahrennC-H, Xu Z, Smith B, Cocklin C (2011) The 10 Australian ecosystems most vulnerable to tipping points. Biological Conservation 144, 1472-1480. doi:10. 1016/ J. BIOCON. 2011. 01. 016
115. Lavorel S, Colloff MJ, Mcintyre S, Doherty MD, Murphy HT, Metcalfe DJ, Dunlop M, Williams RJ, Wise RM, Williams KJ (2015) Ecological mechanisms underpinning climate adaptation services. Global Change Biology 21, 12-31. doi:10. 1111/GCB. 12689
116. Lindenmayer D, McCarthy MA (2002) Congruence between natural and human forest disturbance: A case study from Australian montane ash forests. Forest Ecology and Management 155, 319-335. doi:10. 1016/ S0378-1127(01)00569-2
117. Lindenmayer DB, Noss RF (2006) Salvage Logging, Ecosystem Processes, and Biodiversity Conservation. Conservation Biology 20, 949-958. doi:10. 1111/J. 1523-1739. 2006. 00497. X
118. Lindenmayer DBB, Ough K (2006) Salvage logging in the montane ash eucalypt forests of the Central Highlands of Victoria and its potential impacts on biodiversity. Conservation Biology 20, 1005-1015. doi:10. 1111/J. 1523-1739. 2006. 00501. X
119. Lindenmayer DB, Cunningham RB, Donnelly CF, Franklin JF (2000) Structural features of old-growth Australian montane ash forests. Forest Ecology and Management 134, 189-204. doi:10. 1016/S0378-1127(99) 00257-1
120. Lindenmayer DB, Hunter ML, Burton PJ, Gibbons P (2009) Effects of logging on fire regimes in moist forests. Conservation Letters 2, 271-277. doi:10. 1111/J. 1755-263X. 2009. 00080. X
121. Lindenmayer DB, Hobbs RJ, Likens GE, Krebs CJ, Banks SC (2011) Newly discovered landscape traps produce regime shifts in wet forests. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108, 15887-15891. doi:10. 1073/PNAS. 1110245108
122. Liu Y, Stanturf J, Goodrick S (2010) Trends in global wildfire potential in a changing climate. Forest Ecology and Management 259, 685-697. doi:10. 1016/J. FORECO. 2009. 09. 002
123. Mackey BG, Lindenmayer DB, Gill AM, McCarthy MA, Lindesay J (2002) 'Wildlife, Fire and Future Climate'. (CSIRO Publishing: Collingwood).
124. Mayer AL, Khalyani AH (2011) Grass trumps trees with fire. Science 334, 188-189. doi:10. 1126/SCIENCE. 1213908
125. McArthur AG (1968) The fire resistance of eucalypts. Proceedings of the Ecological Society of Australia 3, 83-90.
126. McCarthy MA, Lindenmayer D (1998) Multi-aged mountain ash forest, wildlife conservation and timber harvesting. Forest Ecology and Management 104, 43-56. doi:10. 1016/S0378-1127(97)00231-4
127. McCarthy MA, Gill AM, Bradstock RA (2001) Theoretical fire-interval distributions. International Journal of Wildland Fire 10(1), 73-77. doi:10. 1071/WF01013
128. McElhinny C, Gibbons P, Brack C, Bauhus J (2005) Forest and woodland stand structural complexity: its definition and measurement. Forest Ecology and Management 218, 1-24. doi:10. 1016/J. FORECO. 2005. 08. 034
129. McKimm RJ, Flinn DW (1979) Eucalyptus species, site preparation and fertiliser requirements for reforestation of the Toorongo Plateau in central Victoria. Australian Forestry 42, 117-124. doi:10. 1080/ 00049158. 1979. 10674213
130. Moreira B, Pausas JG (2012) Tanned or burned: The role of fire in shaping physical seed dormancy. PLoS One 7, e51523. doi:10. 1371/JOURNAL. PONE. 0051523
131. Moulds FR (1991) 'The Dynamic Forest: A History of Forestry and Forest Industries in Victoria'. (Lynedoch Publications: Richmond, Vic.).
132. Muir AM, Vesk PA, Hepworth G (2014) Reproductive trajectories over decadal time-spans after fire for eight obligate-seeder shrub species in south-eastern Australia. Australian Journal of Botany 62, 369-378. doi:10. 1071/BT14117
133. Murphy BP, Bowman DMJS (2012) What controls the distribution of tropical forest and savanna Ecology Letters 15, 748-758. doi:10. 1111/J. 1461-0248. 2012. 01771. X
134. Murphy BP, Bradstock RA, Boer MM, Carter J, Cary GJ, Cochrane MA, Fensham RJ, Russell-Smith J, Williamson GJ, Bowman DMJS, Ladiges P (2013a) Fire regimes of Australia: A pyrogeographic model system. Journal of Biogeography 40, 1048-1058. doi:10. 1111/JBI. 12065
135. Murphy S, Hateley RF, Fagg P (2013b) 'Low elevation mixed species in Victoria's state forests. ' (Department of Sustainability and Environment: Melbourne, Vic.).
136. Muscolo A, Bagnato S, Sidari M, Mercurio R (2014) A review of the roles of forest canopy gaps. Journal of Forest Research 25, 725-736. doi:10. 1007/S11676-014-0521-7
137. Needham RH (1960) Problems associated with the regeneration of Eucalyptus gigantea (syn Eucalyptus delegatensis) in the Surrey Hills area. Appita 13, 136-140.
138. Niinemets Ü (2010) Responses of forest trees to single and multiple environmental stresses from seedlings to mature plants: past stress history, stress interactions, tolerance and acclimation. Forest Ecology and Management 260, 1623-1639. doi:10. 1016/J. FORECO. 2010. 07. 054
139. Nitschke CR, Innes JL (2013) Potential effect of climate change on observed fire regimes in the Cordilleran forests of South-Central Interior, British Columbia. Climatic Change 116, 579-591. doi:10. 1007/ S10584-012-0522-5
140. Noble IR (1984) Mortality of lignotuberous seedlings of Eucalyptus species after an intense fire in montane forest. Australian Journal of Ecology 9, 47-50. doi:10. 1111/J. 1442-9993. 1984. TB01617. X
141. Noble IR, Slatyer RO (1980) The use of vital attributes to predict successional changes in plant communities subject to recurrent disturbances. Vegetatio 43, 5-21. doi:10. 1007/BF00121013
142. Noble IR, Slatyer RO (1981) Concept and models of succession in vascular plant communities subject to recurrent fire. In 'Fire and the Australian Biota. ' (Eds AM Gill, RH Groves, IR Noble) pp. 311-335. (Australian Academy of Science: Canberra).
143. Nolan RH, Lane PNJ, Benyon RG, Bradstock R, Mitchell PJ (2014) Changes in evapotranspiration following wildfire in resprouting eucalypt forests. Ecohydrology 7, 1363-1377.
144. Norris J, Arnold S, Fairman T (2010) An indicative estimate of carbon stocks on Victoria's publicly managed land using the FullCAM carbon accounting model. Australian Forestry 73, 209-219. doi:10. 1080/ 00049158. 2010. 10676331
145. Noss RF (1990) Indicators for monitoring biodiversity: A hierarchical approach. Conservation Biology 4, 355-364. doi:10. 1111/J. 1523-1739. 1990. TB00309. X
146. O'Dowd DJ, GillAM (1984) Predator satiation and site alteration following fire: mass reproduction of alpine ash (Eucalyptus delegatensis) in Southeastern Australia. Ecology 65, 1052-1066. doi:10. 2307/1938313
147. Oborne L (2013) Estimating fire intensity and species-specific fire susceptibility for the 2009 Black Saturday bushfires in Victoria's Central Highlands. Honours thesis, Monash University.
148. Odion DC, Moritz MA, DellaSalaDA (2010) Alternative community states maintained by fire in the Klamath Mountains, USA. Journal of Ecology 98, 96-105. doi:10. 1111/J. 1365-2745. 2009. 01597. X
149. Paine RT, Tegner MJ, Johnson EA (1998) Compounded perturbations yield ecological surprises. Ecosystems 1, 535-545. doi:10. 1007/ S100219900049
150. Paritsis J, Veblen TT, Holz A (2015) Positive fire feedbacks contribute to shifts from Nothofagus pumilio forests to fire-prone shrublands in Patagonia. Journal of Vegetation Science 26, 89-101.
151. Pausas JG (2015) Alternative fire-driven vegetation states. Journal of Vegetation Science 26, 4-6. doi:10. 1111/JVS. 12237
152. Pausas J, Keeley J (2009) A burning story: The role of fire in the history of life. Bioscience 59, 593-601. doi:10. 1525/BIO. 2009. 59. 7. 10
153. Pausas JG, Keeley JE (2014) Evolutionary ecology of resprouting and seeding in fire-prone ecosystems. New Phytologist 204, 55-65. doi:10. 1111/NPH. 12921
154. Pechony O, Schindell DT (2010) Driving forces of global wildfires over the past millennium and the forthcoming century. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 107, 19167-19170. doi:10. 1073/PNAS. 1003669107
155. Peel MC, Finlayson BL, Mcmahon TA (2007) Updated world map of the Koppen-Geiger climate classification. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 11, 1633-1644. doi:10. 5194/HESS-11-1633-2007
156. Potts B (1990) The response of eucalypt populations to a changing environment. Tasforests 2, 179-193.
157. Potts BM, Wiltshire RJ (1997) Eucalypt genetics and genecology. In 'Eucalypt Ecology: Individuals to Ecosystems'. (Eds J Williams, J Woinarksi) pp. 56-91. (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK).
158. Price OF, Bradstock RA (2012) The efficacy of fuel treatment in mitigating property loss during wildfires: insights from analysis of the severity of the catastrophic fires in 2009 in Victoria, Australia. Journal of Environmental Management 113, 146-157. doi:10. 1016/J. JENVMAN. 2012. 08. 041
159. Raison RJ, Woods PV, Khanna PK (1983) Dynamics of fine fuels in recurrently burnt eucalypt forests. Australian Forestry 46, 294-302. doi:10. 1080/00049158. 1983. 10674414
160. Ratajczak Z, Nippert JB, Briggs JM, Blair JM (2014) Fire dynamics distinguish grasslands, shrublands and woodlands as alternative attractors in the Central Great Plains of North America. Journal of Ecology 102, 1374-1385. doi:10. 1111/1365-2745. 12311
161. Ray D, Nepstad D, Moutinho P (2005) Micrometeorological and canopy controls of fire susceptibility in a forested Amazon landscape. Ecological Applications 15, 1664-1678. doi:10. 1890/05-0404
162. Reyer CPO, Brouwers N, Rammig A, Brook BW, Epila J, Grant RF, Holmgren M, Langerwisch F, Leuzinger S, Lucht W, Medlyn B, Pfeifer M, Steinkamp J, Vanderwel MC, Verbeeck H, Villela DM (2015) Forest resilience and tipping points at different spatio-temporal scales: Approaches and challenges. Journal of Ecology 103, 5-15. doi:10. 1111/1365-2745. 12337
163. Russell-Smith J, Yates CP, Whitehead PJ, Smith R, Craig R, Allan GE, Thackway R, Frakes I, Cridland S, Meyer MCP, Gill M (2007) Bushfires 'down under': patterns and implications of contemporary Australian landscape burning. International Journal of Wildland Fire 16, 361-377. doi:10. 1071/WF07018
164. Sanford T, Frumhoff PC, Luers A, Gulledge J (2014) The climate policy narrative for a dangerously warming world. Nature Climate Change 4, 164-166. doi:10. 1038/NCLIMATE2148
165. Scheffer M, Carpenter SR (2003) Catastrophic regime shifts in ecosystems: linking theory to observation. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 18, 648-656. doi:10. 1016/J. TREE. 2003. 09. 002
166. Scheffer M, Carpenter S, Foley JA, Folke C, Walker B (2001) Catastrophic shifts in ecosystems. Nature 413, 591-596. doi:10. 1038/35098000
167. Scheffer M, Hirota M, Holmgren M, Van Nes EH, Chapin FS (2012) Thresholds for boreal biome transitions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 109, 21384-21389. doi:10. 1073/PNAS. 1219844110
168. Sebrie ID, Fagg P (2009) 'High elevation mixed species in Victoria's state forests. ' (Department of Sustainability and Environment: Melbourne, Vic.).
169. Seidl R, Schelhaas M-J, Rammer W, Verkerk PJ (2014) Increasing forest disturbances in Europe and their impact on carbon storage. Nature Climate Change 4, 806-810. doi:10. 1038/NCLIMATE2318
170. Simkin R, Baker PJ (2008) Disturbance history and stand dynamics in tall open forest and riparian rainforest in the Central Highlands of Victoria. Austral Ecology 33, 747-760. doi:10. 1111/J. 1442-9993. 2008. 01843. X
171. Staver AC, Bond WJ, Stock WD, Van Rensburg SJ, Waldram MS, CarlaA (2009) Browsing and fire interact to suppress tree density in an African savanna. Ecological Applications 19, 1909-1919. doi:10. 1890/ 08-1907. 1
172. Staver AC, Archibald S, Levin S (2011) The global extent and determinants of savanna and forest as alternative biome states. Science 334, 230-232. doi:10. 1126/SCIENCE. 1210465
173. Stephens SL, Agee JK, Fule PZ, North MP, Romme WH, Swetnam TW, Turner MG (2013) Managing forests and fire in changing climates. Science 342, 41-42. doi:10. 1126/SCIENCE. 1240294
174. Stephens SL, Burrows N, Buyantuyev A, Gray RW, Keane RE, Kubian R, Liu S, Seijo F, Shu L, Tolhurst KG, van Wagtendonk JW (2014) Temperate and boreal forest mega-fires: characteristics and challenges. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 12, 115-122. doi:10. 1890/ 120332
175. Stevens-Rumann CS, Prichard S, Morgan P (2014) The effect of previous wildfires on subsequent wildfire behavior and post-wildfire recovery. Available at http://nrfirescience. org/sites/default/files/ Stevens-RumannPrichardMorgan2014-0. pdf [Verified 28 July 2015].
176. Taylor C, McCarthy MA, Lindenmayer DB (2014) Nonlinear effects of stand age on fire severity. Conservation Letters 7, 355-370. doi:10. 1111/ CONL. 12122
177. Thomson FJ, Moles AT, Auld TD, Kingsford RT (2011) Seed dispersal distance is more strongly correlated with plant height than with seed mass. Journal of Ecology 99, 1299-1307. doi:10. 1111/J. 1365-2745. 2011. 01867. X
178. Turner MG (2010) Disturbance and landscape dynamics in a changing world. Ecology 91, 2833-2849. doi:10. 1890/10-0097. 1
179. Turner MG, Romme WH, Tinker DB (2003) Surprises and lessons from the 1988 Yellowstone fires. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 1, 351-358. doi:10. 1890/1540-9295(2003)001[0351:SALFTY]2. 0. CO;2
180. Turner P, Balmer J, Kirkpatrick JB (2009) Stand-replacing wildfires The incidence of multi-cohort and single-cohort Eucalyptus regnans and E. obliqua forests in southern Tasmania. Forest Ecology and Management 258, 366-375. doi:10. 1016/J. FORECO. 2009. 04. 021
181. Viggers J, Weaver H, Lindenmayer D (2013) 'Melbourne's Water Catchments: Perspectives on a World-Class Water Supply'. (CSIRO Publishing: Collingwood).
182. Vivian LM, Cary GJ, Bradstock R, Gill AM (2008) Influence of fire severity on the regeneration, recruitment and distribution of eucalypts in the Cotter River Catchment, Australian Capital Territory. Austral Ecology 33, 55-67. doi:10. 1111/J. 1442-9993. 2007. 01790. X
183. Volkova L, Weston CJ (2015) Carbon loss from planned fires in southeastern Australian dry Eucalyptus forests. Forest Ecology and Management 336, 91-98. doi:10. 1016/J. FORECO. 2014. 10. 018
184. Volkova L, Meyer CPM, Murphy S, Fairman T, Reisen F, Weston C (2014) Fuel reduction burning mitigates wildfire effects on forest carbon and greenhouse gas emission. International Journal of Wildland Fire 23, 771-780. doi:10. 1071/WF14009
185. Walker BH (1992) Biodiversity and ecological redundancy. Conservation Biology 6, 18-23. doi:10. 1046/J. 1523-1739. 1992. 610018. X
186. Walker B, Holling CS, Carpenter SR, Kinzig A (2004) Resilience, adaptability and transformability in social-ecological systems. Ecology and Society 9, 5.
187. Walshe T (2001) Describing natural disturbance regimes for use as a forest management model. PhD thesis. The University of Melbourne.
188. Warman L, Moles AT (2009) Alternative stable states in Australia's Wet Tropics: A theoretical framework for the field data and a field-case for the theory. Landscape Ecology 24, 1-13. doi:10. 1007/S10980-008-9285-9
189. Waters DA, Burrows GE, Harper JD (2010) Eucalyptus regnans (Myrtaceae): A fire-sensitive eucalypt with a resprouter epicormic structure. American Journal of Botany 97, 545-556. doi:10. 3732/AJB. 0900158
190. Werner P, Franklin D (2010) Resprouting and mortality of juvenile eucalypts in an Australian savanna: impacts of fire season and annual sorghum. Australian Journal of Botany 58, 619-628. doi:10. 1071/ BT10139
191. Wesolowski A, Adams M, Pfautsch S (2014) Insulation capacity of three bark types of temperate Eucalyptus species. Forest Ecology and Management 313, 224-232. doi:10. 1016/J. FORECO. 2013. 11. 015
192. West PW (1991) Thinning response and growth modelling. In 'Young Eucalypt Report: Some Management Options for Australia's Regrowth Forests' (Eds CM Kerruish, WHM Rawlins) pp. 29-47. (CSIRO: Melbourne, Vic.).
193. Westerling AL, Hidalgo HG, Cayan DR, Swetnam TW (2006) Warming and earlier spring increase western US forest wildfire activity. Science 313, 940-943. doi:10. 1126/SCIENCE. 1128834
194. Westerling AL, Turner MG, Smithwick EAH, Romme WH, Ryan M (2011) Continued warming could transform Greater Yellowstone fire regimes by mid-21st century. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108, 13165-13170.
195. Whelan RJ (1995) 'The Ecology of Fire'. (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK).
196. Wiley E, Helliker B (2012) A re-evaluation of carbon storage in trees lends greater support for carbon limitation to growth. New Phytologist 195, 285-289. doi:10. 1111/J. 1469-8137. 2012. 04180. X
197. Wilkins CW (1976) A study on the action of wild fires on remote forests. Stochastic Processes and Their Applications 4, 187-202. doi:10. 1016/ 0304-4149(76)90036-3
198. Wilkinson G, Jennings S (1993) Survival and recovery of eucalyptus obliqua regeneration following wildfire. Tasforests 5, 1-11.
199. Williams J (2013) Exploring the onset of high-impact mega-fires through a forest land management prism. Forest Ecology and Management 294, 4-10. doi:10. 1016/J. FORECO. 2012. 06. 030
200. Woinarski JCZ, Burbidge AA, Harrison PL (2015) Ongoing unraveling of a continental fauna: decline and extinction of Australian mammals since European settlement. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 112, 4531-4540. doi:10. 1073/PNAS. 1417301112
201. Wood SW, Murphy BP, Bowman DMJS (2011) Firescape ecology: how topography determines the contrasting distribution of fire and rain forest in the south-west of the Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area. Journal of Biogeography 38, 1807-1820. doi:10. 1111/J. 1365-2699. 2011. 02524. X
202. Zedler PH, Gautier CR, Mcmaster GS (1983) Vegetation change in response to extreme events: The effect of a short interval between fires in California chaparral and coastal scrub. Ecology 64, 809-818. doi:10. 2307/1937204