Digital terrain modeling: Principles and methodology

Digital Terrain Modeling: Principles and Methodology

Volumn , Issue , 2004, Pages 1-320

  Li, Zhilin ^a   Zhu, Qing ^b   Gold, Christopher ^c  

^a HONG KONG POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY   (Hong Kong)

^b WUHAN UNIVERSITY   (China)

^c UNIVERSITY OF GLAMORGAN   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84979766575     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1201/9780203357132     Document Type: Book

References (231)

1. Ackermann, F. 1979. The accuracy of digital terrain models. In: Proceedings of 37th Photogrammetric Week, University of Stuttgart, Germany, pp. 113–143.
2. Ackermann, F. 1996. Airborne laser scanning for elevation models. GIM International, 10(10):24–25.
3. Albertz, J., Li, Z., and Zhang, W. 1999. Orthoimages from air-borne scanner images using flight parameters. The Geomatics Journal of Hong Kong, 1(2):13–24.
4. Amenta, N., Bern, M., and Eppstein, D. 1998. The crust and the beta-skeleton: combinatorial curve reconstruction. Graphical Models and Image Processing, 60:125–135.
5. Augenbaum, M. 1985. On the construction of the Voronoi mesh on a sphere. Computational Physics, 59:177–192.
6. Aumann, G., Ebner, H., and Tang, L. 1991. Automatic derivation of skeleton lines from digitized contours, ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 46:259–268.
7. Aurenhammer, F. 1987. Power diagrams: properties, algorithms and applications. SIAM Journal of Computing, 16:78–96.
8. Aurenhammer, F. 1991. Voronoi diagrams — a survey of a fundamental geometric data structure. ACM Computing Surveys, 23(3):345–405.
9. Axelsson, P. 1999. Processing of laser scanner data: algorithms and applications. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 54(1):138–147.
10. Baffisfore, A. 1957. A do-it-yourself terrain model. Photogrammetric Engineering, 23:712–720.
11. Balce, A.E. 1987. Determination of optimum sampling interval in grid digital elevation models (DEM) data acquisition. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, 53:323–330.
12. Baltsavias, E.P. 1999a. Airborne laser scanning: existing systems and firms and other resources. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry & Remote Sensing, 54(1):164–198.
13. Baltsavias, E.P. 1999b. Airborne laser scanning: basic relations and formulas. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry & Remote Sensing, 54(1):199–214.
14. Blum, H. 1967. A transformation for extracting new descriptors of shape. In: Whaten Dunn, W. (Ed.), Models for the Perception of Speech and Visual Form, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, pp. 153–171.
15. Borgefors, G. 1986. Distance transformations in digital images. Computer Vision, Graphics and Image Processing, 34:344–371.
16. Bowyer, A. 1981. Computing Dirichlet tessellations. The Computer Journal, 24(2):162–166.
17. Brassel, K. and Reif, D. 1979. Procedure to generate Thiessen polygon. Geographical Analysis, 11(3):289–303.
18. Burington, R. and May, D. 1970. Handbook of Probability and Statistics with Tables, 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
19. Caldwell, D.R., Mineter, M.J., Dowers, S., and Gittings, B.M. 2003. Analysis and Visualization of Visibility Surfaces. www.geocomputation.org/2003/Abstracts/Caldwell_Abs.pdf.
20. Catlow, D.R. 1986. The multi-disciplinary applications of DEMs. Auto-Carto London, 1:447–454.
21. Chen, J., Zhao, X.S., and Li, Z.L. 2003. An algorithm for the generation of Voronoi diagrams on the sphere based on QTM. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, 69(1):79–90.
22. Chen, X. 1991. Mathematic Morphology and Images Analysis. Publishing House of Surveying and Mapping, Beijing (in Chinese).
23. Chen, Y.Q., Zhang, G., Ding, X.L., and Li, Z.L. 2000. Monitoring earth surface deformations with InSAR technology: principle and some critical issues. Journal of Geospatial Engineering, 2(1):3–21.
24. Chen, Z. and Guevara, J. 1987. Systematic selection of very important points (VIP) from digital terrain model for constructing triangular irregular networks. Auto Carto, 8: 50–56.
25. Cheng, G. 2000. Hierarchy Representation of Virtual Terrain Environment and Research into the Real Time Shading Technology. Ph.D. thesis, Zhengzhou Institute for Mapping and Surveying, Zhengzhou. 133 pages (in Chinese).
26. Christensen, A. 1987. Fitting a triangulation to contour lines. In: Proceedings of Auto Carto 8, pp. 57–67.
27. Clarke, A., Gruen, A., and Loon, J. 1982. A contour-specific interpolation algorithm for DEM generation. International Archive of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 14(III):68–81.
28. Collins, S.H. 1968. Stereoscopic orthophoto maps. Canadian Surveyor, 22(1):167–176.
29. Cryer, J. 1986. Time Series Analysis with Minitab. Duxbury Press, Boston.
30. Curlander, J.C. and Mcdonough, R.N. 1991. Synthetic Aperture Radar: Systems and Signal Processing. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
31. Dakowicz, M. and Gold, C.M. 2002. Extracting meaningful slopes from terrain contours. In: Sloot, P.M.A., Tan, C.J.K., Dongarra, J.J., and Hoekstra, A.G. (Eds.), Proceedings: Computational Science — ICCS 2002, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Vol. 2331, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 144–153.
32. Davies, G.A. 2000. Voronoi Diagrams: The Modelling of Natural and Synthetic Structures. World Scientific, Singapore.
33. de Berg, M. 2000. Computational Geometry: Algorithms and Applications, 2nd ed. Springer, Berlin.
34. de Berg, M. and Dobrindt, K. 1998. On levels of detail in terrains. Graphical Models and Image Processing, 60(1):1–12.
35. de Floriani, L. 1989. A pyramidal data structure for triangle-based surface description. IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications, 9(2):67–78.
36. De Floriani, L. and Magillo, P. 1994. Visibility algorithms on triangulated digital terrain models. International Journal of Geographical Information Systems, 8(1): 13–42.
37. Delaunay, B. 1934. Sur la sphere vide. Bulletin of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Classe des Sciences Mathématiques et Naturelles, 7:793–800.
38. DiBiase, D. 1990. Visualization in earth sciences. Earth and Mineral Sciences, Bulletin of the College of Earth and Mineral Sciences, PSU, 56(2):13–18.
39. DiBiase, D.W., MacEachren, A.M., Krygier, J.B., and Reeves, C. 1992. Animation and the role of map design in scientific visualisation. Cartography and Geographic Information Systems, 19:201–214, 265–266.
40. Dikau, R. 1989. The application of a digital relief model to landform analysis in geomorphology. In: Raper, J. (Ed.), Three Dimensional Applications in Geographic Information Systems, Taylor & Francis, London, pp. 51–78.
41. Dutton, G. 1989. Modelling locational uncertainty via hierarchical tessellation. In: Goodchild, M. and Gopal, S. (Eds.), Accuracy of Spatial Databases. Taylor and Francis, London, pp. 125–140.
42. Dutton, G. 1996. Encoding and handling geospatial data with hierarchical triangular meshes. In: Kraak, M.J. and Molenaar, M. (Eds.), Proceeding of 7th International Symposium on Spatial Data Handling. Delft, the Netherlands, August 12–16, 1996, pp. 34–43.
43. Ebisch, K. 1984. Effect of digital elevation resolution on the properties of contours. Technical Paper, ASP-ACSM Fall Convention, San Antonio, Texas, September 9–14, pp. 424– 434.
44. Ebner, H., Hofmann-Wellenhof, B., Reiss, P., and Steidler, F. 1980. HIFI — A minicomputer program package for height interpolation by finite elements. International Archives of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 23(IV):202–241.
45. Elfick, M.H. 1979. Contouring by use of a triangular mesh. The Cartographic Journal, 16:24–29.
46. Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI) 1992. Cell-Based Modeling with GRID 6.1. ARC/INFO User’s Guide.
47. Evans, I. 1981. General geomorphimetry. In: Goudie, A. (Ed.), Geomorphological Techniques, Geoge Allen & Unwin, Boston, MA, pp. 31–37.
48. Evans, I. 1972. General geomorphometry: Derivatives of altitude, and the descriptive statistics. In: Chorley, R. (ed.), Spatial Analysis in Geomorphology, London: Methuen & Co. Ltd, 17–90.
49. Eyton, J.R. 1984. Raster contour. Geo-Processing, 2:221–242
50. Falby, J.S., Zyda, M.J., Pratt, D.R., and Mackey, R.L. 1993. NPSNET: hierarchical data structure for real-time three-dimensional visual simulation. Computer & Graphics, 17(1):65–69.
51. Felicísimo, A. 1994. Parametric statistical method for error detection in digital elevation models. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 49:29–33.
52. Flood, M. 2001. Laser altimetry: from science to commercial Lidar mapping. Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing, 67(11):1209–1218.
53. Forture, S. 1975. A sweep line method for Voronoi diagram. Methodica, 2:153–174.
54. Frederiksen, P. 1981. Terrain analysis and accuracy prediction by means of the Fourier transformation. Photogrammetria, 36:145–157.
55. Frederiksen, P., Jacobi, O., and Justesen, J. 1978. Fourier transformation von hohenbeobach-tungen. ZFV, 103:64–79.
56. Frederiksen, P., Jacobi, O., and Kubik, K. 1983. Measuring terrain roughness by topographic dimension. In: Proceedings of International Colloquium on Mathematical Aspects of DEM, Stockholm, Sweden.
57. Frederiksen, P., Jacobi, O., and Kubik, K. 1986. Optimum sampling spacing in digital elevation models. International Archives of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 26(3/1):252–259.
58. Freeman, T.G. 1991. Calculating catchment area with divergent flow based on a regular grid. Computers & Geosciences, 17(3):413–422.
59. Fritsch, D. and Spiller, R. (Eds.) 1999. Photogrammetric Week’99. Wichmann, Heidelberg, Germany.
60. Gannapathy, S. and Dennehy, T. 1982. A new general triangulation method for planar contours. Computer Graphics, 16(3):69–72.
61. Garmin. 2003. What is GPS? http://www.garmin.com/aboutGPS/(last accessed August 3, 2003).
62. Gold, C.M. 1989. Surface interpolation, spatial adjacency and GIS. In: Raper, J. (Ed.), Three Dimensional Applications in GIS, Taylor and Francis, London, pp. 21–36.
63. Gold, C.M. and Condal, A.R. 1995. A spatial data structure integrating GIS and simulation in a marine environment. Marine Geodesy, 18:213–228.
64. Gold, C.M. and Cormack, S. 1987. Spatially ordered networks and topographic reconstructions. International Journal of Geographical Information Systems, 1:137–148.
65. Gold, C.M. and Mostafavi, M. 2000. Towards the global GIS. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 55(3):150–163.
66. Gold, C.M. and Snoeyink, J. 2001. A one-step crust and skeleton extraction algorithm, Algorithmica, 30:144–163.
67. Gold, C.M., Charters, T.D., and Ramsden, J. 1977. Automated contour mapping using triangular element data structures and an interpolant over each triangular domain. In: George, J. (Ed.), Proceedings: Siggraph’77. Computer Graphics, 11(2): 170–175.
68. Gold, C.M., Chau, M., Dzieszko, M., and Goralski, R. 2004. A window into the real world. In: Proceeding Conference on Spatial Data Handling, Leicester, U.K., August 2004.
69. Goldstein, R.M., Zebker, H.A., and Werner, C.L. 1988. Satellite radar interferometry: two-dimensional phase unwrapping. Radio Science, 23:713–720.
70. Gong, J., Li, Z.L., Zhu, Q., Sui, H.G., and Zhou, Y. 2000. Effect of various factors on the accuracy of DEMs: an intensive experimental investigation. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, 66(9):1113–1117.
71. Goodchild, M.F. and Yang, S. 1992. A hierarchical data structure for global geographic information systems. Computer Vision and Geographic Image Processing, 54(1): 31–44.
72. Goodchild, M.F., Yang, S., and Dutton, G. 1991. Spatial Data Representation and Basic Operations for a Triangular Hierarchical Data Structure. NCGIA Report, pp. 91–98.
73. Gosper, J.J. 1998. 2D Convex Hulls. http://www.brunel.ac.uk/∼castjjg/java/mscthesis/convexhull/(last accessed August 2003).
74. Gouraud, H. 1971. Illumination of computer-generated pictures. Communication of ACM, 18(60):311–317.
75. Graham, L.C. 1974. Synthetic interferometer radar for topographic mapping. Proceedings of the IEEE, 62(2):763–768.
76. Green, P.J. and Sibson, R. 1977. Computing Dirichlet tessellations in the plane. The Computer Journal, 21(2):168–173.
77. Guibas, L., Mitchell, J.S.B., and Roos, T. 1991. Voronoi diagrams of moving points in the plane. In: G. Schmidt (Ed.), The 17th International Workshop in Graph-Theoretic Concepts in Computer Science, Lecture notes in computer science 570; 113–125. Berlin; New York, Springer-Verlag, 1992.
78. Haala, N., Brenner C., and Anders, K.H. 1998. 3D urban GIS from laser altimeter and 2D map data. International Archives of Photogrammetric & Remote Sensing, 32(Part 3/1):339–346.
79. Hannah, M. 1981. Error detection and correction in digital terrain models. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, 47(1):63–69.
80. Haralick, R., Sternberg, S., and Zhuang, X. 1987. Image analysis using mathematical morphology. IEEE Transactions of Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, 9:532–550.
81. Hardy, R. 1971. Multiquadratic equations of topography and other irregular surfaces. Journal of Geophysical Research, 76:1905–1915.
82. Helava, U.V. 1958. New principles of photogrammetric plotters. Photogrametria, 14(2):89–96.
83. Helava, U.V. and Chapelle, W.E. 1972. Epipolar-scan correlation. Bendix Technical Journal, Spring Issue, 5:19–23.
84. Heller, M. 1990. Triangulation algorithms for adaptive terrain modeling. In: Brassel, K. and Kishimoto, H. (Eds.), Proceedings, Fourth International Symposium on Spatial Data Handling, Zurich, pp. 163–174.
85. Hengl, T., Gruber, S., and Shrestha, D.P. 2003. Digital Terrain Analysis in ILWIS. http://www.itc.nl/personal/shrestha/dta/(last accessed on April 2, 2004).
86. Hogg, R. and Tanis, E. 1977. Probability and Statistical Inference. Macmillan Publishing Co., New York.
87. Horn, B.K.P. 1981. Hill shading and the reflectance map. Proceedings of IEEE, 69(1):14–47.
88. Imhof, E. 1965. Kartographische Gelandedarstellung. Walter de Gruyter & Co., Berlin.
89. Jensen, J.R. 1980. Stereoscopic statistical maps. The American Cartography, 7(1): 25–37.
90. Jenson, S.K. and Domingue, J.O. 1988. Extraction topographic structure from digital elevation data for geographic information system analysis. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, 54(11):1593–1600.
91. Jiang, B. 1996. Cartographic visualization: analytical and communication tools. Cartography, 25(2):1–11.
92. Keating, T. and Wolf, P. 1976. Analytical photogrammetry from digitised image densities. Presented paper, XIII ISP Congress, Helsinki, Finland, 1976.
93. Kidner, D.B. and Smith, D.H. 2003. Advances in the data compression of digital elevation models. Computers & Geosciences, 29:985–1002.
94. Klein, R. 1988. Abstract Voronoi Diagrams and Their Applications. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Vol. 333, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
95. Konecny, G., Bahr, H., Reil, W., and Schreiber, H. 1979. Use of Spaceborne Metric Camera for Cartographic Applications. Report to the Ministry of Research and Technology of FRG.
96. Kraak, M.J. and Brown, A. 2001. Web Cartography: Developments and Prospectus. Taylor & Francis, London.
97. Kraus, K. and Pfeifer, N. 1998. Determination of terrain models in wooded areas with airborne laser scanner data. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 53(4):193–203.
98. Kubik, K. and Botman, A. 1976. Interpolation accuracy for topographic and geological surfaces. ITC Journal, 1976-2:236–274.
99. Kubik, K. and Roy, R. 1986. Digital Terrain Model Workshop Proceedings, Columbus, OH.
100. Leberl, F. 1990. Radargrammetric Image Processing. Artech House, Norwood, MA.
101. Leberl, F. and Olson, D. 1982. Raster scanning for operational digitizing of graphical data. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, 48(4):615–627.
102. Leberl, F., Domik, G., Cimino, J., and Kobrick, M. 1986a. Radar stereomapping techniques and application to SIR-B images of Mt. Shasta. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 24(4):473–481.
103. Leberl, F., Domik, G., Cimino, J., Raggam, J., and Kobrick, M. 1986b. Multiple incidence angle SIR-B experiment over Argentina: stereo-radargrammetric analysis. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 24(4):482–491.
104. Lee, D.T. and Drysdale, R.L. 1981. Generalization of Voronoi diagram in the plane. SIAM Journal of Computing, 10:73–87.
105. Lee, M. and Samet, H. 2000. Navigating through triangle meshes implemented as linear quadtree. ACM Transactions on Graphics, 19(2):79–121.
106. Ley, R. 1986. Accuracy assessment of digital terrain models. Auto-Carto London, 1:455–464.
107. Li, C., Chen, J., and Li, Z.L. 1999. A raster-based algorithm for computing Voronoi diagrams of spatial objects using dynamic distance transformation. International Journal of Geographical Information Science, 13(3):209–225.
108. Li, D. 1998. Lecture on New Technology of Photography Measurement. Press of Wuhan Technical University of Surveying and Mapping, Wuhan, China (in Chinese).
109. Li, Z.L. 1988. On the measure of digital terrain model accuracy. Photogrammetric Record, 12(72):873–877.
110. Li, Z.L. 1990. Sampling Strategy and Accuracy Assessment for Digital Terrain Modelling. Ph.D. thesis, The University of Glasgow.
111. Li, Z.L. 1991. Effects of check points on the reliability of DTM accuracy estimates obtained from experimental tests. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, 57(10):1333–1340.
112. Li, Z.L. 1992a. Variation of the accuracy of digital terrain models with sampling interval. Photogrammetric Record, 14(79):113–128.
113. Li, Z.L. 1992b. Variation of the accuracy of digital terrain models with sampling interval. Photogrammetric Record, 14(82):651–660.
114. Li, Z.L. 1993a. Theoretical models of the accuracy of digital terrain models: an evaluation and some observations. Photogrammetric Record, 14(82):651–660.
115. Li, Z.L. 1993b. Mathematical models of the accuracy of digital terrain model surfaces linearly constructed from grid data. Photogrammetric Record, 14(82):661–674.
116. Li, Z.L. 1994. A comparative study of the accuracy of digital terrain models based on various data models. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 49(1):2–11.
117. Li, Z.L. 1996. Transformation of spatial representation in scale dimension: a new paradigm for digital generalization of spatial data. International Archives for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 31(B3):453–458.
118. Li, Z.L. 1999. Scale: a fundamental scale in spatial information science. In: Xu, G. and Chen, Y. (Eds.), Towards Digital Earth — Proceedings of the International Symposium on The Digital Earth, November 29 to December 2, 1999, Beijing, pp. 533–538.
119. Li, Z.L. 2003. Scale in data integration and multi-scale representation. In: Chen, J. and Wu, L. (Eds.), Framework for Digital China, Science Press, Beijing, pp. 57–67 (in Chinese).
120. Li, Z.L. and Li, C.M. 1999. Objective generalization of DEM based on a natural principle. In: Chen, J., Zhou, Q.M., Li, Z.L., and Jiang, J. (Eds.), Proceedings of 2nd International Workshop on Dynamic and Multi-Dimensional GIS, October 4–6, 1999, Beijing, pp. 17–22.
121. Li, Z.L. and Openshaw, S. 1992. Algorithms for objective generalization of line features based on the natural principle. International Journal of Geographical Information Systems, 6(5):373–389.
122. Li, Z.L. and Openshaw, S. 1993. A natural principle for objective generalisation of digital map data. Cartography and Geographic Information System, 20(1):19–29.
123. Li, Z.L. and Zhu, Q. 2000. Digital Elevation Models. Wuhan University Press, Wuhan, China (in Chinese).
124. Li, Z.L., Lam, K., and Li, C.M. 1998. Effect of compression on the accuracy of DTM. Geographic Information Science, 4(1–2):37–43.
125. Li, Z.L., Hill, C., Azizi, A., and Clark, M.J. 1993. Exploring the potential benefits of digital photogrammetry: some practical examples. Photogrammetric Record, 14(81): 469–475.
126. Lindstrom, P., Koller, D., Ribarsky, W., Hodges, L.F., Faust, N., and Turner, G. 1996. Real-time continuous level of detail rendering of height fields. In: Rushmeier, H. (Ed.), Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 96, New Orleans, LA, August 4–9, 1996, pp. 109–118.
127. Liu, X.J. 2002. Analysis and Evaluation of Error of Interpreting Algorithm Based on Regular Grid Digital Elevation Model. Ph.D. thesis, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China (in Chinese).
128. Llobera, M. 2003. Extending GIS-based visual analysis: the concept of visualscapes. International Journal of Geographical Information Science, 17(1):25–48.
129. Loon, J.C. 1978. Cartographic Generalization of Digital Terrain Models. Dissertation, University Microfilm International.
130. Luebke, D., Reddy, M., Cohen, J., Varshney, A., Watson, B., and Huebner, R. 2003. Level of Detail for 3D Graphics. Morgan Kaufmann Publisher, San Franscisco, CA.
131. Makarovic, B. 1972. Information transfer on construction of data from sampled points. Photogrammetria, 28(4):111–130.
132. Makarovic, B. 1973. Progressive sampling for DTMs. ITC Journal, 1973-4:397–416.
133. Makarovic, B. 1975. Amended strategy for progressive sampling. ITC Journal, 1975-1:117–128.
134. Makarovic, B. 1977. Regressive rejection — a digital data compression technique. In: Proceedings of ASP/ACSM Fall Convention, Little Rock, October 1977.
135. Makarovic, B. 1979. From progressive sampling to composite sampling. Geo-processing, 1:145–166.
136. Makarovic, B. 1984. A test on compression of digital terrain model data. ITC Journal, 1983-2:133–138.
137. Mandelbort, B. 1967. How long is the coast of Britian? Statistical self-similarity and fractional dimension. Science, 155:636–638.
138. Mandelbrot, B. 1981. The Fractal Geometry of Nature. W.H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, CA.
139. Mark, D. 1975. Geomorphometric parameters: a review and evaluation. Geografiska Annaler, 57A:165–177.
140. Masry, S.E. 1974. Digital correlation principles. Photogrammetric Engineering, 40(3): 303–308.
141. Masser, I. 1988. The Regional Research Laboratory Initiative: a progress report. International Journal of Geographical Information System, 2:11–22.
142. McCullagh, M. and Ross, R. 1980. Delaunay triangulation of a random data set for isarithmic mapping. The Cartographic Journal, 17(2):178–181.
143. McElroy, S. 1992. Getting Started with GPS Surveying. The Global Positioning System Consortium (GPSCO), Australia.
144. McLain, D.H. 1976. Two dimensional interpolation from random data. Computer Journal, 19:178–181.
145. Meyer, W. 1985. Concepts of Mathematical Modeling. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
146. Meyer, W. 1995. Concepts of Mathematical Modelling. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
147. Miles, R.E. and Maillardet, R.J. 1982. The basic structures of Voronoi and generalized Voronoi polygons. Journal of Applied Probability, 19A:97–111.
148. Miller, C. and Laflamme, R. 1958. The digital terrain model — theory and applications, Photogrammetric Engineering, 24:433–442.
149. Moore, I.D., Grayson, R.B., and Ladson, A.R. 1994. Digital terrain modelling: a review of hydrological, geomorphological, and biological applications. In: Beven, K.J. and Moore, I.D. (Eds.), Terrain Analysis and Distributed Modelling in Hydrology, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, U.K., pp. 7–34.
150. Moritz, H. 1980. Advanced Physical Geodesy. Wichmann, Heidelberg, Germany.
151. Mostafavi, M.A., Gold, C., and Dakowicz, M. 2003. Delete and insert operations in Voronoi/Delaunay methods and applications. Computers & Geoscience, 29:523–530.
152. Mostafavi, M.A. and Gold, C.M. 2004. A global kinetic spatial data structure for a marine simulation. International Journal of Geographical Information Science, 18(3):211–227.
153. Narasimhan, T.N. and Witherspoon, P.A. 1976. An integrated finite difference method for analyzing fluid flow in porous media. Water Resources Research, 12:57–64.
154. O’Callaghan, J.F. and Mark, D.M. 1984. The extraction of drainage networks from digital elevation data. Computer Vision, Graphics, and Image Processing, 28(4):323–344.
155. Ohya, T., Iri, M., and Murota, K. 1984a. A fast Voronoi-diagram method with quaternary tree bucketing. Information Processing Letters, 18:227–231.
156. Ohya, T., Iri, M., and Murota, K. 1984b. Improvement of the incremental method for the Voronoi diagram with computational comparison of various methods. Journal of the Operations Research Society of Japan, 27:306–336.
157. Okabe, A., Boots, B., Sugihara, K., and Chiu, S.N. 2000. Spatial Tessellations: Concepts and Applications of Voronoi Diagrams, 2nd ed. John Wiley, Chichester, U.K.
158. Olea, R.A. 1999. Geostatistics for Engineers and Earth Scientists. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, MA.
159. Openshaw, S. 1994. The Modifiable Areal Unit Issue. CATMOG #38. Geo Books, Norwick, England.
160. O’Rourke, J. 1993. Computational Geometry in C. Cambridge Press, Cambridge.
161. Ostman, A. 1986. A graphic editor for digital elevation models. Geo-processing, 3: 143–154.
162. Otoo, E. and Zhu, H. 1993. Indexing on spherical surfaces using semi-quadcodes. In: Abel, J. and Beng, C.O. (Eds.), Advances in Spatial Databases, Lecture Notes in Computer Science 692, Springer, Singapore, pp. 509–529.
163. Petrie, G. 1990a. Modelling, interpolation and contouring procedures. In: Petrie, G. and Kennie, T. (Eds.), Terrain Modelling in Surveying and Civil Engineering, Whittles Publishing, Caithness, England, pp. 112–137.
164. Petrie, G. and Kennie T. (Eds.) 1987. An introduction to terrain modeling: applications and terminology. In: Terrain Modelling in Surveying and Civil Engineering: A Short Course. University of Glasgow.
165. Petrie, G. and Kennie, T. (Eds.) 1990. Terrain Modelling in Surveying and Civil Engineering. Whittles Publishing, Caithness, England.
166. Peucker, T. 1972. Computer Cartography. Association of American Geographer, Commission on College Geography, Washington, DC.
167. Phillips, G.M. 2003. Interpolation and Approximation by Polynomials. Springer, New York.
168. Phong, B.-T. 1975. Illumination for computer-generated pictures. Communication of ACM, 18(6):311–317.
169. Polidori, L. 1991. Digital terrain models from radar images: a review. In: Guyenne, T.D. and Hunt, J.J. (Eds.), Proceedings of the International Symposium on Radars and Lidars in Earth and Planetary Science, France, Cannes, pp. 141–146.
170. Quattrochi, D.A. and Goodchild, M.F. (Eds.) 1997. Scale in Remote Sensing and GIS. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
171. Quinn, P.F., Beven, K., Chevallier, P., and Planchon, O. 1991. The prediction of hill-slope flow paths for distributed hydrological modelling using digital terrain models. In: Beven, K.J. and Moore, I.D. (Eds.), Terrain Analysis and Distributed Modelling in Hydrology, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, U.K., pp. 63–83.
172. Rana, S. and Morley, J. 2002. Optimising Visibility Analyses Using Topographic Features on the Terrain. Working Paper 44, CASA of University College London.
173. Ritter, P. 1987. A vector-based slope and aspect generation algorithm. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, 53:1109–1111.
174. Robert, J.R. 1997. Delaunay triangulation and Voronoi diagram on the surface of a sphere. ACM Transactions on Mathematical Software, 23(3):416–434.
175. Roberts, R. 1957. Using new methods in highway location. Photogrammetric Engineering, 23:563–569.
176. Saaty, T. and Alexander, J. 1981. Thinking with Models. Pergamon Press, Oxford.
177. Sakhnovich, L.A. 1997. Interpolation Theory and its Applications. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, MA.
178. Sarjakoski, T. 1981. Concept of a completely digital stereo plotter. The Photogrammetric Journal of Finland, 8(2):95–100.
179. Schuts, G. 1976. Review of interpolation methods for digital terrain models. International Archives of Photogrammetry, 21(3).
180. Schwarz, P. 1982. A test for personal stereoscopic measuring precision. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, 48(3):375–381.
181. Serra, J. 1982. Image Processing and Mathematical Morphology. Academic Press, New York.
182. Sharpnack, D.A. and Akin, G. 1969. An algorithm for computing slope and aspect from elevations. Photogrammetric Survey, 35:247–248.
183. Sibson, R. 1980. A vector identity for the Dirichlet tesselation. Mathematical Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, 87:151–155.
184. Sigle, M. 1984. A digital terrain model for the state of Badenwuttemberg. International Archives of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 25(A3/B):1016–1026.
185. Skidmore, A.K. 1989. A comparison of techniques for calculating gradient and aspect from a gridded digital elevation model. International Journal of Geographical Information System, 4:323–334.
186. Snyder, J.P. 1992. An equal-area map projection for polyhedral globes. Cartographica, 29(1):10–12.
187. State Bureau of Quality and Technical Supervision (SBQTS) 1999. Geo-Spatial Data Transfer Format (GB/T 17798-1999). Standard Press of China, Beijing.
188. Strahler, A. 1956. Quantitative slope analysis. Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, 67:571–596.
189. Su, B., Li, Z.L., and Lodwick, G. 1998. Algebraic models for collapse operation in digital map generalization using morphological operators. Geoinformatica, 2(4):359–382.
190. Su, B.Q. 1989. Computational Geometry: Curve and Surface Modeling. Academic Press, Boston, MA.
191. Sugihara, K. 1992. A simple method for avoiding numerical errors and degeneracy in Voronoi diagram computation. IEICE Transactions Fundamentals, E75-A(4): 468–477.
192. Tang, G.A. 2000. A Research on The Accuracy of Digital Elevation Models. Science Press, Beijing.
193. Tang, L. 1989. Surface modelling and visualization based upon digital image processing techniques. In: Grun, A. and Kahmen, H.K. (Eds.), Optical 3-D Measurement Techniques, Wichmann Verlag, Karlsruhe, Germany, pp. 317–325.
194. Tempfli, K. 1980. Spectral analysis of terrain relief for the accuracy estimation of digital terrain models. ITC Journal, 1980-3:487–510.
195. The Aerospace Corporation. 2003. GPS Premier. http://www.aero.org/publications/GPSPRIMER/(last accessed August 3, 2003).
196. Thibault, D. and Gold, C. 2000. Terrain reconstruction from contours by skeleton construction. Geoinformatica, 4(4):349–374.
197. Thiessen, A.H. 1911. Precipitation averages for Large Areas. Monthly Weather Review, 39:1082–1084.
198. Toomey, M. 1988. The Alberta digital elevation model. International Archives of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 27(B3):775–783.
199. Torlegard, K., Ostman, A., and Lindgren, R. 1986. A comparative test of photogrammetrically sampled digital elevation models. Photogrammetria, 41(1):1–16.
200. Toutin, T. 2002. Impact of terrain slope and aspect on radargrammetric DEM accuracy, ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 57(3):228–240.
201. Toutin, Th. 2000. Evaluation of radargrammetric DEM from RADARSAT images in high relief areas. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 38(2): 782–789.
202. Toutin, Th. and Gray, L. 2000. State-of-the-art of elevation extraction from satellite SAR data. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry & Remote Sensing, 55:13–33.
203. Tsai, V.J.D. 1993. Delaunay triangulations in TIN creation: an overview and a linear-time algorithm. International Journal of GIS, 7(6):501–524.
204. Tse, O.C.R. and Gold, C.M. 2002. TIN meets CAD — extending the TIN concept in GIS. In: Sloot, P.M.A., Tan, C.J.K., Dongarra, J.J., and Hoekstra, A.G. (Eds.), Computational Science — ICCS 2002, Vol. 2331, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 135–143.
205. Turner, H. 1997. A comparison of some methods for slope measurement from large-scale air photos. Photogrammetria, 32:209–237.
206. Unwin, D. 1981. Introductory Spatial Analysis. Methuen, London.
207. U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) 1998. Standards for Digital Elevation Models. http://rockyweb.cr.usgs.gov/nmpstds/demstds.html (last accessed April 2004).
208. van Kreveld, M. 1996. Efficient methods for isoline extraction from a TIN. International Journal of Geographical Information Systems, 10:523–540.
209. Wang, J.J., Robinson, G.J., and White, K. 2000. Generating viewshed without using sightlines. Photogrammetric Engineering & Romote Sensing, 66(1):87–90.
210. Watson, D.F. 1981. Computing the N-dimensional Delaunay tessellation with applications to Voronoi diagram. The Computer Journal, 24(2):167–172.
211. Watson, D.F. 1992. Contouring: A Guide to the Analysis and Display of Spatial Data. Pergamon Press, New York.
212. Weibel, R. 1987. An Adaptive Methodology for Automated Relief Generalization. Auto-Carto 8, Baltimore, MD.
213. Wentworth, C. 1930. A simplified method for the determining the average slope of land surface. American Journal of Science, 20:184–194.
214. Wessel, P. 2003. Compression of large data grids for Internet transmission. Computers & Geosciences, 29:665–671.
215. Whitmore, G. and Thompson, M. 1966. Introduction to photogrammetry. In: Thompson, M. (Ed.), Manual of Photogrammetry, American Society for Photogrammetry, Fall Church, pp. 1–16.
216. White, D., Kimmerling, J., and Overton, W.S. 1992. Cartographic and geometric components of a global sampling design for environment monitoring. Cartography & Geographic Information Systems, 19(1):5–22.
217. Wickman, F.E. and Elvers, E. 1974. A system of domains for global sampling problems. Geografiska Annaler, 56(3/4):201–212.
218. Wilson, J.P. and Gallant, J. (Eds.) 2000. Terrain Analysis: Principle and Applications. John Wiley & Sons, Singapore.
219. Wu, H. 1997. Structured approach to implementing automated cartographic generalisation. Proceedings of ICC’97, 1:349–356.
220. Yeoli, P. 1977. Computer executed interpolation of contours into arrays of randomly distributed height points. The Cartographic Journal, 14:103–108.
221. You, X. 1991. The battlefield environment simulation based on VR. In: The First Workshop on the Virtual Reality and Geography, Shenzhen, China, May 29, 2001 (in Chinese).
222. Zaninetti, L. 1990. Dynamic Voronoi tessellation. Astronomy and Astrophysics, 233:293–300.
223. Zebker, H.A. and Villasenor, J. 1992. Decorrelation in interferometric radar echoes. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 30:950–959.
224. Zebker, H.A., Rosen, P.A., and Hensley, S. 1997. Atmospheric effects in interferometric systhetic aperture radar surface deformation and topographic maps. Journal of Geophysical Research, 102:7547–7563.
225. Zevenbergen, L.W. and Thorne, C.R. 1987. Quantitative analysis of land surface topography. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 12:47–56.
226. Zhao, R.L., Li, Z.L., Chen, J., Gold, C., and Zhang, Y. 2002. A hierarchical raster method for computing for Voronoi diagrams based on Quadtree. In: Sloot, P., Tan, C., Dongarra, J., and Hoekstra, A. (Eds.), Computational Science — ICCS 2002, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Vol. 2331, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 1004–1013.
227. Zhou, Q. and Liu, J. 2002. Error assessment of grid-based flow routing algorithms used in hydrological models. International Journal of Geographical Information Science, 16(8):819–842.
228. Zhu, G., Wang, J., and Jiang, W. 1999. Digital Map Analysis. Publishing House of Wuhan Technical University of Surveying and Mapping, Wuhan, China (in Chinese).
229. Zhu, Q. and Chen, C.J. 1998. An algorithm for fast generation of TIN and its dynamic updating. Journal of Wuhan Technical University of Surveying and Mapping, 23(3):204–207 (in Chinese).
230. Zhu, Q., Zhao, J., Zhong, Z., and Sui, H.G. 2003. An efficient algorithm for the extraction of topographic structures from large scale grid DEMs. In: Li, Z.L., Zhou, Q., and Kainz, W. (Eds.), Advances in Spatial Analysis and Decision Making, A.A. Balkema Publishers, Lisse, Netherlands, pp. 99–107.
231. Zwicker, M. and Gross, M.H. 2000. A Survey and Classification of Real Time Rendering Methods. Mitsubishi Electric Research Laboratories, Cambridge Research Center. http://www.merl.com/papers/TR2000-09/(last accessed April 2004).