Intermittent domestic water supply: A critical review and analysis of causal-consequential pathways

Water (Switzerland)

Volumn 8, Issue 7, 2016, Pages

  Galaitsi, S E ^a   Russell, Robert ^b   Bishara, Amahl ^c   Durant, John L ^d   Bogle, Jennifer ^c   Huber Lee, Annette ^a,d  

^a STOCKHOLM ENVIRONMENT INSTITUTE   (Sweden)

^b Strategic Consulting   (United States)

^c TUFTS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^d Tufts University   (United States)

Author keywords

Domestic water supply; Interdisciplinary review; Intermittent water supply; Unreliable water supply; Water resources management

Indexed keywords

DEVELOPING COUNTRIES; WATER RESOURCES; WATER SUPPLY;

DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLY; ENVIRONMENTAL CONSTRAINTS; GOVERNMENT ADMINISTRATION; INTERMITTENT SYSTEMS; INTERMITTENT WATER SUPPLY; LITERATURE REVIEWS; MULTIDIMENSIONAL PROBLEMS; WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT;

WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS;

ADMINISTRATION; INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACH; LITERATURE REVIEW; RESOURCE MANAGEMENT; RESOURCE SCARCITY; WATER RESOURCE; WATER SUPPLY;

EID: 84979052958     PISSN: None     EISSN: 20734441     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/w8070274     Document Type: Review

References (146)

1. Zérah, M.-H. How to assess the quality dimension of urban infrastructure: The case of water supply in Delhi. Cities 1998, 15, 285-290.
2. Ingeduld, P.P.A.; Svitak, Z.T.A. Modelling intermittent water supply systems with EPANET. In Proceedings of the Water Distribution Systems Analysis Symposium 2006, Cincinnati, OH, USA, 27-30 August 2006; pp. 1-8.
3. Subbaraman, R.; Nolan, L.; Sawant, K.; Shitole, S.; Shitole, T.; Nanarkar, M.; Patil-Deshmukh, A.; Bloom, D.E. Multidimensional measurement of household water poverty in a Mumbai slum: Looking beyond water quality. PLoS ONE 2015, 10, e0133241.
4. Katuwal, H.; Bohara, A. Coping with poor water supplies: Empirical evidence from Kathmandu, Nepal. J. Water Health 2011, 9, 143-158.
5. Baisa, B.; Davis, L.W.; Salant, S.W.; Wilcox, W. The welfare costs of unreliable water service. J. Dev. Econ. 2010, 92, 1-12.
6. Klingel, P. Technical causes and impacts of intermittent water distribution. Water Sci. Technol. Water Supply 2012, 12, 504-512.
7. De Marchis, M.; Fontanazza, C.; Freni, G.; La Loggia, G.; Napoli, E.; Notaro, V. Analysis of the impact of intermittent distribution by modelling the network-filling process. J. Hydroinform. 2011, 13, 358-373.
8. Manohar, U.; Kumar, M.M. Modeling Equitable Distribution of Water: Dynamic Inversion-Based Controller Approach. J. Water Resour. Plan. Manag. 2013, 140, 607-619.
9. Amr, S.A.; Yassin, M.M. Microbial contamination of the drinking water distribution system and its impact on human health in Khan Yunis Governorate, Gaza Strip: Seven years of monitoring (2000-2006). Public Health 2008, 122, 1275-1283.
10. Abu-Madi, M.; Trifunovic, N. Impacts of supply duration on the design and performance of intermittent water distribution systems in the West Bank. Water Int. 2013, 38, 263-282.
11. Aguilar, A.G.; López, F.M. Water Insecurity among the urban poor in the peri-urban zone of Xochimilco, México City. J. Lat. Am. Geogr. 2009, 8, 97-123.
12. Akram, A.A.; Olmstead, S.M. The value of household water service quality in Lahore, Pakistan. Environ. Resour. Econ. 2011, 49, 173-198.
13. Al-Ghamdi, A. Leakage-pressure relationship and leakage detection in intermittent water distribution systems. J. Water Supply Res. Technol. 2011, 60, 178-183.
14. Alhassan, H.; Kwakwa, P.A. When water is scarce: The perception of water quality and effects on the vulnerable. J. Water Sanit. Hyg. Dev. 2014, 4, 43-50.
15. Altaf, M.A. The economics of household response to inadequate water supplies: Evidence from Pakistan. Third World Plan. Rev. UK 1994, 16.
16. Effah, A.E.; Ali, M.F.; Josef, B. Improving equity in intermittent water supply systems. J. Water Supply Res. Technol.-AQUA 2013, 62.
17. Andey, S.P.; Kelkar, P.S. Influence of intermittent and continuous modes of water supply on domestic water consumption. Water Resour. Manag. 2009, 23, 2555-2566.
18. Andey, S.P.; Kelkar, P.S. Performance of water distribution systems during intermittent versus continuous water supply. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 2007, 99-106.
19. Arnold, M.; VanDerslice, J.A.; Taylor, B.; Benson, S.; Allen, S.; Johnson, M.; Kiefer, J.; Boakye, I.; Arhinn, B.; Crookston, B.T. Drinking water quality and source reliability in rural Ashanti region, Ghana. J. Water Health 2013, 11, 161-172.
20. Arouna, A.; Dabbert, S. Estimating rural households' willingness to pay for water supply improvements: A Benin case study using a semi-nonparametric bivariate probit approach. Water Int. 2012, 37, 293-304.
21. Ayoub, G.M.; Malaeb, L. Impact of intermittent water supply on water quality in Lebanon. Int. J. Environ. Pollut. 2006, 26, 379-397.
22. Bari, M.; Miah, M.; Awall, M.; Hossain, M.; Rashid, M.H.; Sarker, D.C. Availability ofWater for Domestic Purposes in Dhaka Division. In IABSE Symposium Report; International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering: Zurich, Switzerland, 2005; Volume 89, pp. 567-573.
23. Batish, R. A New Approach to the Design of Intermittent Water Supply Networks. In World Water & Environmental Resources Congress 2003; American Society of Civil Engineers: Philadelphia, PA, USA, 2003; pp. 1-11.
24. Biggs, E.M.; Duncan, J.M.; Atkinson, P.M.; Dash, J. Plenty of water, not enough strategy: How inadequate accessibility, poor governance and a volatile government can tip the balance against ensuring water security: The case of Nepal. Environ. Sci. Policy 2013, 33, 388-394.
25. Biswas, P.; Mandal, K. Drinking Water in Rural India: A Study on Deficiency, Quality and Some Social Implications. Water Policy 2010, 12, 885-897.
26. Boelens, R.; Budds, J.; Bury, J.; Butler, C.; Crow, B.; Dill, B.; French, A.; Harris, L.M.; Hoag, C.; Kulkarni, S.; et al. Santa Cruz declaration on the global water crisis. Water Int. 2014, 39, 246-261.
27. Bontianti, A.; Hungerford, H.; Younsa, H.H.; Noma, A. Fluid experiences: Comparing local adaptations to water inaccessibility in two disadvantaged neighborhoods in Niamey, Niger. Habitat Int. 2014, 43, 283-292.
28. Bradley, D.J.; Bartram, J.K. Domestic water and sanitation as water security: Monitoring, concepts and strategy. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. Math. Phys. Eng. Sci. 2013, 371, 20120420.
29. Bradley, R.M.; Weeraratne, S.; Mediwake, T.M. International issues-Water use projections in developing countries-Careful evaluation of actual water use patterns is critical to planning efficient and well-used water delivery systems in. Am. Water Works Assoc. J. 2002, 94, 52-63.
30. Cabrera-Bejar, J.A.; Tzatchkov, V.G. Inexpensive modeling of intermittent service water distribution networks. In Proceedings of the EWRI-ASCE World Environmental & Water Resources Congress, Kansas City, MO, USA, 17 May 2009; Volume 21.
31. Caprara, A.; de Lima, J.W.O.; Marinho, A.C.P.; Calvasina, P.G.; Landim, L.P.; Sommerfeld, J. Irregular water supply, household usage and dengue: A bio-social study in the Brazilian Northeast. Cad. Saúde Pública 2009, 25, S125-S136.
32. Chandapillai, J.; Sudheer, K.P.; Saseendran, S. Design of water distribution network for equitable supply. Water Resour. Manag. 2012, 26, 391-406.
33. Choe, K.; Varley, R.C.; Bijlani, H.U. Coping with intermittent water supply: Problems and prospects. In Activity Report; Environmental Health Project: Dehra Dun, India, 1996.
34. Christodoulou, S.; Agathokleous, A. A study on the effects of intermittent water supply on the vulnerability of urban water distribution networks. Water Sci. Technol. Water Supply 2012, 12, 523-530.
35. Coelho, S.; James, S.; Sunna, N.; Chatila, J. Controlling water quality in intermittent supply systems. Water Supply 2003, 3, 119-125.
36. Criminisi, A.; Fontanazza, C.M.; Freni, G.; La Loggia, G. Evaluation of the apparent losses caused by water meter under-registration in intermittent water supply. Water Sci. Technol. 2009, 60, 2373.
37. Cubillo, F. Droughts, risk management and reliability. Water Sci. Technol. Water Supply 2004, 4, 1-11.
38. Dauda, S.A.; Yacob, M.R.; Radam, A. Household's willingness to pay for heterogeneous attributes of drinking water quality and services improvement: An application of choice experiment. Appl. Water Sci. 2015, 5, 253-259.
39. De Marchis, M.; Fontanazza, C.M.; Freni, G.; La Loggia, G.; Napoli, E.; Notaro, V. A model of the filling process of an intermittent distribution network. Urban Water J. 2010, 7, 321-333.
40. De Marchis, M.; Milici, B.; Freni, G. Pressure-Discharge Law of Local Tanks Connected to aWater Distribution Network: Experimental and Mathematical Results. Water 2015, 7, 4701-4723.
41. De Marchis, M.; Fontanazza, C.M.; Freni, G.; La Loggia, G.; Notaro, V.; Puleo, V. A mathematical model to evaluate apparent losses due to meter under-registration in intermittent water distribution networks. Water Sci. Technol. Water Supply 2013, 13, 914-923.
42. Dutta, V.; Tiwari, A.P. Cost of services and willingness to pay for reliable urban water supply: A study from Delhi, India. Water Sci. Technol. Water Supply 2005, 5, 135.
43. Elala, D.; Labhasetwar, P.; Tyrrel, S.F. Deterioration in water quality from supply chain to household and appropriate storage in the context of intermittent water supplies. Water Sci. Technol. Water Supply 2011, 11, 400-408.
44. Ennis-McMillan, M.C. Suffering from water: Social origins of bodily distress in a Mexican community. Med. Anthropol. Q. 2001, 15, 368-390.
45. Ercumen, A.; Arnold, B.F.; Kumpel, E.; Burt, Z.; Ray, I.; Nelson, K.; Colford, J.M., Jr. Upgrading a PipedWater Supply from Intermittent to Continuous Delivery and Association with Waterborne Illness: A Matched Cohort Study in Urban India. PLoS Med. 2015, 12, e1001892.
46. Evison, L.; Sunna, N. Microbial regrowth in household water storage tanks. Am. Water Works Assoc. 2001, 93, 85-94.
47. Fan, L.; Liu, G.;Wang, F.; Ritsema, C.J.; Geissen, V. DomesticWater Consumption under Intermittent and Continuous Modes ofWater Supply. Water Resour. Manag. 2014, 28, 853-865.
48. Fontanazza, C.M.; Freni, G.; La Loggia, G. Analysis of intermittent supply systems in water scarcity conditions and evaluation of the resource distribution equity indices. WIT Trans. Ecol. Environ. 2007, 103, 635-644.
49. Freni, G.; De Marchis, M.; Napoli, E. Implementation of pressure reduction valves in a dynamic water distribution numerical model to control the inequality in water supply. J. Hydroinform. 2014, 16, 207-217.
50. Galaitsi, S.E.; Huber-Lee, A.; Vogel, R.M.; Naumova, E.N. Using water insecurity to predict domestic water demand in the Palestinian West Bank. Water Int. 2015, 40, 614-634.
51. Genius, M.; Tsagarakis, K.P. Water shortages and implied water quality: A contingent valuation study. Water Resour. Res. 2006, 42.
52. Goyal, R.V.; Patel, H.M. Analysis of residual chlorine in simple drinking water distribution system with intermittent water supply. Appl. Water Sci. 2015, 5, 311-319.
53. Habi, M.; Harrouz, O. Domestic water conservation practices in Tlemcen City (Algeria). Appl. Water Sci. 2015, 5, 161-169.
54. Haddadin, M.J. Water Resources in Jordan: Evolving Policies for Development, the Environment, and Conflict Resolution; Resources for the Future: Washington, DC, USA, 2006.
55. Hashwa, F.; Tokajian, S. Intermittent Water Supply and Domestic Water Quality in the Middle East. In Water in the Middle East and in North Africa; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2004; pp. 157-166.
56. Hensher, D.; Shore, N.; Train, K. Households' willingness to pay for water service attributes. Environ. Resour. Econ. 2005, 32, 509-531.
57. Howard, G.; Bartram, J. Domestic Water Quantity, Service Level, and Health; World Health Organization: Geneva, Swizerland, 2003.
58. Howe, C.W.; Smith, M.G.; Bennett, L.; Brendecke, C.M.; Flack, J.E.; Hamm, R.M.; Mann, R.; Rozaklis, L.; Wunderlich, K. The value of water supply reliability in urban water systems. J. Environ. Econ. Manag. 1994, 26, 19-30.
59. Huang, L.-Y.; Wang, Y.-C.; Liu, C.-M.; Wu, T.-N.; Chou, C.-H.; Sung, F.-C.; Wu, C.-C. Water outage increases the risk of gastroenteritis and eyes and skin diseases. BMC Public Health 2011, 11, 726.
60. Humplick, F.; Kudat, A.; Madanat, S. Household Response to Reliability of Water Supply: The Case of Istanbul, Turkey; Policy Planning and Research Staff, The World Bank: Washington, DC, USA, 1992.
61. Humplick, F.; Kudat, A.; Madanat, S. Modeling Household Responses toWater Supply: A Service Quality Approach; Banque Mondiale, Transportation, Water, and Urban Development Department: Washington, DC, USA, 1993.
62. Hunter, P.R.; Zmirou-Navier, D.; Hartemann, P. Estimating the impact on health of poor reliability of drinking water interventions in developing countries. Sci. Total Environ. 2009, 407, 2621-2624.
63. Jensen, P.K.; Ensink, J.H.; Jayasinghe, G.; Van Der Hoek, W.; Cairncross, S.; Dalsgaard, A. Domestic transmission routes of pathogens: The problem of in-house contamination of drinking water during storage in developing countries. Trop. Med. Int. Health 2002, 7, 604-609.
64. Jepson, W. Measuring "no-win" waterscapes: Experience-based scales and classification approaches to assess household water security in colonias on the US-Mexico border. Geoforum 2014, 51, 107-120.
65. Jepson, W.; Vandewalle, E. HouseholdWater Insecurity in the Global North: A Study of Rural and Periurban Settlements on the Texas-Mexico Border. Prof. Geogr. 2016, 68, 66-81.
66. Kansal, M.L.; Kumar, A.; Sharma, P.B. Reliability analysis of water distribution systems under uncertainty. Reliab. Eng. Syst. Saf. 1995, 50, 51-59.
67. Klassert, C.; Sigel, K.; Gawel, E.; Klauer, B. Modeling Residential Water Consumption in Amman: The Role of Intermittency, Storage, and Pricing for Piped and Tanker Water. Water 2015, 7, 3643-3670.
68. Klingel, P.; Nestmann, F. From intermittent to continuous water distribution: A proposed conceptual approach and a case study of Béni Abbès (Algeria). Urban Water J. 2014, 11, 240-251.
69. Korfali, S.I.; Jurdi, M. Assessment of domestic water quality: Case study, Beirut, Lebanon. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2007, 135, 241-251.
70. Kumar, A. Leakage control in intermittent water supplies. Water Supply Rev. J. Int. Water Supply Assoc. 1997, 5, 55-58.
71. Kumar, A. Technologies to improve efficiency in distribution system with intermittent supplies. Water Supply Int. Water Supply Assoc. 1998, 16, 576-579.
72. Kumar, M.M.; Manohar, U.; Pallavi, M.R.M.; Anjana, G.R. Urban water supply and management. J. Indian Inst. Sci. 2013, 93, 295-318.
73. Kumpel, E.; Nelson, K.L. Comparing microbial water quality in an intermittent and continuous piped water supply. Water Res. 2013, 47, 5176-5188.
74. Kumpel, E.; Nelson, K.L. Mechanisms affecting water quality in an intermittent piped water supply. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2014, 48, 2766-2775.
75. Kumpel, E.; Nelson, K.L. Intermittent Water Supply: Prevalence, Practice, and Microbial Water Quality. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2016, 50, 542-553.
76. Lee, E.; Schwab, K. Deficiencies in drinking water distribution systems in developing countries. J. Water Health 2005, 3, 109-127.
77. Majuru, B.M.M.M.; Jagals, P.H.P.R. Health impacts of small-community water supply reliability. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health. Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health 2011, 214, 162-166.
78. Majuru, B.; Jagals, P.; Hunter, P.R. Assessing rural small community water supply in Limpopo, South Africa: Water service benchmarks and reliability. Sci. Total Environ. 2012, 435, 479-486.
79. Mason, L.R. Gender and asset dimensions of seasonal water insecurity in urban Philippines. Weather Clim. Soc. 2012, 4, 20-33.
80. Matsinhe, N.P.; Juizo, J.; Persson, K.M. The Effect of Intermittent Supply and Household Storage on the Quality of Drinking Water in Maputo. Available online: http://www.tidskriftenvatten.se/mag/tidskriftenvatten.se/dircode/docs/48_article_4739.pdf (accessed on 24 June 2016).
81. McIntosh, A.C. Asian Water Supplies Reaching the Urban Poor. 2003. Available online: https://openaccess.adb.org/handle/11540/264 (accessed on 24 June 2016).
82. Mehta, L. Whose scarcity? Whose property? The case of water in western India. Land Use Policy 2007, 24, 654-663.
83. Mermin, J.H.; Villar, R.; Carpenter, J.; Roberts, L.; Gasanova, L.; Lomakina, S.; Bopp, C.; Hutwagner, L.; Mead, P.; Ross, B.; et al. A massive epidemic of multidrug-resistant typhoid fever in Tajikistan associated with consumption of municipal water. J. Infect. Dis. 1999, 179, 1416-1422.
84. Mier, M.V.; Callejas, R.L.; Rodriguez, J.F.; Gonzalez, A. Inadequate water supply and environmental quality deterioration in an irregular settlement. In Environmental Engineering and Health Sciences; Proceedings of the International Symposium on Environmental Engineering and Health Sciences: A Joint Effort for the XXI Century, Cholula, Puebla, Mexico, 26-30 October 1998; Universidad de Las Americas-Puebla; Water Resources Publication: Englewood, CO, USA, 2000; p. 145.
85. Moffat, B.; Motlaleng, G.R.; Thukuza, A. Households willingness to pay for improved water quality and reliability of supply in Chobe ward, Maun. Botsw. J. Econ. 2011, 8, 45-61.
86. Mohapatra, S.; Sargaonkar, A.; Labhasetwar, P.K. Distribution network assessment using EPANET for intermittent and continuous water supply. Water Resour. Manag. 2014, 28, 3745-3759.
87. Myers, S. Water and Sanitation Program. 24 h Water Supply: Is this Goal Achievable? Drawing lessons from rapid distribution system diagnostic assessments in Indian cities. In Proceedings of the Fifteenth Meeting of the Urban Think Tank, Hyderabad, India, 23-24 September 2003.
88. Nganyanyuka, K.; Martinez, J.;Wesselink, A.; Lungo, J.H.; Georgiadou, Y. Accessing water services in Dar es Salaam: Are we counting what counts? Habitat Int. 2014, 44, 358-366.
89. Nygaard, K.;Wahl, E.; Krogh, T.; Tveit, O.A.; Bøhleng, E.; Tverdal, A.; Aavitsland, P. Breaks and maintenance work in the water distribution systems and gastrointestinal illness: A cohort study. Int. J. Epidemiol. 2007, 36, 873-880.
90. Okotto, L.; Okotto-Okotto, J.; Price, H.; Pedley, S.;Wright, J. Socio-economic aspects of domestic groundwater consumption, vending and use in Kisumu, Kenya. Appl. Geogr. 2015, 58, 189-197.
91. Olmstead, S.M. Water supply and poor communities: What's price got to do with it? Environ. Sci. Policy Sustain. Dev. 2003, 45, 22-35.
92. O'Neill, J.A. Upgrading an Intermittent & Branched Water Network to a Continuous & Looped Network: A Case Study in Coastal Peru; Master's report; Michigan Technological University: Houghton, MI, USA, 2012.
93. Ostfeld, A. Reliability analysis of regional water distribution systems. Urban Water 2001, 3, 253-260.
94. Pattanayak, S.K.; Yang, J.-C.; Whittington, D.; Bal Kumar, K.C. Coping with unreliable public water supplies: Averting expenditures by households in Kathmandu, Nepal. Water Resour. Res. 2005, 41.
95. Pierce, G.; Jimenez, S. Unreliable Water Access in US Mobile Homes: Evidence From the American Housing Survey. Hous. Policy Debate 2015, 25, 739-753.
96. Prakash, A.; Sama, R.K. Social undercurrents in a water-scarce village. Econ. Polit. Wkly. 2006, 577-579.
97. Rahman, A.; Lee, H.K.; Khan, M.A. Domestic water contamination in rapidly growing megacities of Asia: Case of Karachi, Pakistan. Environ. Monit. Assess. 1997, 44, 339-360.
98. Rananga, H.T.; Gumbo, J.R. Willingness to Pay for Water Services in Two Communities of Mutale Local Municipality, South Africa: A Case Study. J. Hum. Ecol. 2015, 49, 231-243.
99. Rosenberg, D.E.; Talozi, S.; Lund, J.R. Intermittent water supplies: Challenges and opportunities for residential water users in Jordan. Water Int. 2008, 33, 488-504.
100. Rosenberg, D.E.; Tarawneh, T.; Abdel-Khaleq, R.; Lund, J.R. Modeling integrated water user decisions in intermittent supply systems. Water Resour. Res. 2007, 43.
101. Sashikumar, N.; Mohankumar, M.S.; Sridharan, K. Modelling an intermittent water supply. In Proceedings of theWorldWater and Environmental Resources Congress 2003, Philadelphia, PA, USA, 23-26 June 2003; p. 261.
102. Sethi, K. Household's Responses to Unreliable Water Supply in Jamshedpur, India: A Report; Transport, Water and Urban Development Department, The World Bank: Washington, DC, USA, 1992.
103. Sijbesma, C.; Verhagen, J.; Nanavaty, R.; James, A.J. Impacts of domestic water supply on gender and income: Results from a participatory study in a drought-prone region in Gujarat, India. Water Policy 2009, 11, 95-105.
104. Solgi, M.; Bozorg Haddad, O.; Seifollahi-Aghmiuni, S.; Loáiciga, H.A. Intermittent operation of water distribution networks considering equanimity and justice principles. J. Pipeline Syst. Eng. Pract. 2015, 6, 4015004.
105. Soltanjalili, M.-J.; Bozorg Haddad, O.; Mariño, M.A. Operating water distribution networks during water shortage conditions using hedging and intermittent water supply concepts. J. Water Resour. Plan. Manag. 2013, 139, 644-659.
106. Stevenson, E.G.; Greene, L.E.; Maes, K.C.; Ambelu, A.; Tesfaye, Y.A.; Rheingans, R.; Hadley, C. Water insecurity in 3 dimensions: An anthropological perspective on water and women's psychosocial distress in Ethiopia. Soc. Sci. Med. 2012, 75, 392-400.
107. Stoler, J.; Fink, G.;Weeks, J.R.; Otoo, R.A.; Ampofo, J.A.; Hill, A.G. When urban taps run dry: Sachet water consumption and health effects in low income neighborhoods of Accra, Ghana. Health Place 2012, 18, 250-262.
108. Subbaraman, R.; Shitole, S.; Shitole, T.; Sawant, K.; O'Brien, J.; Bloom, D.E.; Patil-Deshmukh, A. The social ecology of water in a Mumbai slum: Failures in water quality, quantity, and reliability. BMC Public Health 2013, 13, 173.
109. Sultana, F. Suffering for water, suffering from water: Emotional geographies of resource access, control and conflict. Geoforum 2011, 42, 163-172.
110. Tokajian, S.; Hashwa, F.Water quality problems associated with intermittent water supply. Water Sci. Technol. 2003, 47, 229-234.
111. Totsuka, N.; Trifunovic, N.; Vairavamoorthy, K. Intermittent urban water supply under water starving situations. In Proceedings of the 30th WEDC International Conference on People-Centered Approaches to Water and Environmental Sanitation, Vientiane, Laos, 25-29 October 2004.
112. Tzatchkov, V.G.; Aldama, A.A.; Arreguin, F.I.; Buchberger, S.G.; Lee, Y.-H. Advection-dispersion transport in water distribution networks with intermittent flow. Water Resour. Manag. 2001, 48, 217-226.
113. Vairavamoorthy, K.; Gorantiwar, S.D.; Mohan, S. Intermittent water supply under water scarcity situations. Water Int. 2007, 32, 121-132.
114. Vairavamoorthy, K.; Gorantiwar, S.D.; Pathirana, A. Managing urban water supplies in developing countries-Climate change and water scarcity scenarios. Phys. Chem. Earth A B C 2008, 33, 330-339.
115. Vásquez, W.F. Nonpayment of water bills in Guatemala: Dissatisfaction or inability to pay? Water Resour. Res. 2015, 51, 8806-8816.
116. Vásquez, W.F. Reliability perceptions and water storage expenditures: Evidence from Nicaragua. Water Resour. Res. 2012, 48.
117. Vásquez, W.F.; Espaillat, R.Willingness to pay for reliable supplies of safe drinking water in Guatemala: A referendum contingent valuation study. Urban Water J. 2016, 13, 284-292.
118. Vásquez, W.F.; Franceschi, D. System reliability and water service decentralization: Investigating household preferences in Nicaragua. Water Resour. Manag. 2013, 27, 4913-4926.
119. Vásquez, W.F. A validity assessment of consumer satisfaction to measure performance of water services in Guatemala. J. Water Sanit. Hyg. Dev. 2015, 5, 301-309.
120. Virjee, K.; Gaskin, S. Coping with poor water services and the demand for change in Trinidad and Tobago. Water Int. 2010, 35, 285-297.
121. Wedgworth, J.C.; Brown, J.; Johnson, P.; Olson, J.B.; Elliott, M.; Forehand, R.; Stauber, C.E. Associations between perceptions of drinking water service delivery and measured drinking water quality in rural Alabama. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public. Health 2014, 11, 7376-7392.
122. Whittington, D.; Lauria, D.T.; Mu, X. A study of water vending and willingness to pay for water in Onitsha, Nigeria. World Dev. 1991, 19, 179-198.
123. Whittington, D. Behavioural studies of the domestic demand for water services in Africa: A reply to Stephen Merrett. Water Policy 2002, 4, 83-88.
124. Wutich, A.Water scarcity and the sustainability of a common pool resource institution in the urban Andes. Hum. Ecol. 2009, 37, 179-192.
125. Wutich, A.; Ragsdale, K. Water insecurity and emotional distress: Coping with supply, access, and seasonal variability of water in a Bolivian squatter settlement. Soc. Sci. Med. 2008, 67, 2116-2125.
126. Wutich, A.; Beresford, M.; Carvajal, C. Can Informal Water Vendors Deliver on the Promise of A Human Right toWater? Results From Cochabamba, Bolivia. World Dev. 2016, 79, 14-24.
127. Yepes, G.; Ringskog, K.; Sarkar, S. The high costs of intermittent water service. J. Indian Waterworks Assoc. 2001, 33, 167-170.
128. Zérah, M.-H.Water: Unreliable Supply in Delhi, Centre de Sciences Humaines; Manohar Publishers & Distributors: New Delhi, India, 2000.
129. Zérah, M.-H. Household strategies for coping with unreliable water supplies: The case of Delhi. Habitat Int. 2000, 24, 295-307.
130. Cheng, D. Contestations at the last mile: The corporate-community delivery of water in Manila. Geoforum 2015, 59, 240-247.
131. Selby, J. Cooperation, domination and colonisation: The Israeli-Palestinian joint water committee. Water Altern. 2013, 6, 1-24.
132. Borgardi, J.J.; Dudgeon, D.; Lawford, R.; Flinkerbusch, E.; Meyn, A.; Pahl-Wostl, C.; Vielhauer, K.; Vörösmarty, C.Water security for a planet under pressure: Interconnected challenges of a changing world call for sustainable solutions. Curr. Opin. Environ. Sustain. 2011, 4, 1-9.
133. United Nations Sustainable Development Goals: 17 Goals to Transform OurWorld. N.D. Available online: http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals (accessed on 26 June 2016).
134. Allan, T. The Middle EastWater Question: Hydropolitics and the Global Economy. Arab Stud. J. 2002, 9/10, 160-164.
135. Fisher, F.; Huber-Lee, A. Liquid Assets: An Economic Approach for Water Management and Conflict Resolution in the Middle East and Beyond; Routledge: Washington, DC, USA, 2012.
136. Lund, J.R. Derived estimation of willingness to pay to avoid probabilistic shortage. Water Resour. Res. 1995, 31, 1367-1372.
137. Griffin, R.C.; Mjelde, J.W. Valuing water supply reliability. Am. J. Agric. Econ. 2000, 82, 414-426.
138. Savedoff, W.D.; Spiller, P.T. Spilled Water: Institutional Commitment in the Provision of Water Services; Inter-American Development Bank (IDB):Washington, DC, USA, 1999.
139. Larkin, B. The politics and poetics of infrastructure. Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 2013, 42, 327-343.
140. WHO. How to Measure Chlorine Residual in Water; Technical Note # 11; WHO: Leicestershire, UK, 2005.
141. Lowe, M. Palestinian Water (And Martin Schulz): The Lack of Logic. Available online: http://www.gatestoneinstitute.org/4198/israel-palestinian-water-martin-schulz (accessed on 24 June 2016).
142. Galiani, S.; Gertler, P.; Schargrodsky, E.Water for life: The impact of the privatization of water services on child mortality. J. Polit. Econ. 2005, 113, 83-120.
143. Criqui, L. Infrastructure urbanism: Roadmaps for servicing unplanned urbanisation in emerging cities. Habitat Int. 2015, 47, 93-102.
144. Cherunya, P.C.; Janezic, C.; Leuchner, M. Sustainable Supply of Safe Drinking Water for Underserved Households in Kenya: Investigating the Viability of Decentralized Solutions. Water 2015, 7, 5437-5457.
145. Cheng, C.-L. Study of the inter-relationship between water use and energy conservation for a building. Energy Build. 2002, 34, 261-266.
146. Vaidya, R.A. Governance and management of local water storage in the Hindu Kush Himalayas. Int. J. Water Resour. Dev. 2015, 31, 253-268.