Towards safe injection practices for prevention of hepatitis C transmission in South Asia: Challenges and progress

World Journal of Gastroenterology

Volumn 22, Issue 25, 2016, Pages 5837-5852

  Janjua, Naveed Zafar ^a,b   Butt, Zahid Ahmad ^b   Mahmood, Bushra ^b   Altaf, Arshad ^c  

^a BRITISH COLUMBIA CENTRE FOR DISEASE CONTROL   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA   (Canada)

^c WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION   (Switzerland)

Author keywords

Hepatitis B; Hepatitis C; Prescription practices; South Asia; Unsafe injections

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; BANGLADESH; BHUTAN; BLOODBORNE BACTERIUM; CLINICAL PRACTICE; FEMALE; HEALTH CARE; HEALTH CARE DISPARITY; HEALTH CARE PERSONNEL; HEPATITIS C; HUMAN; INDIA; INJECTION; INSTRUMENT STERILIZATION; MALDIVES; MALE; NEEDLE; NEPAL; PAKISTAN; REVIEW; SAFETY; SRI LANKA; SYRINGE; VIRUS TRANSMISSION; CLINICAL COMPETENCE; EQUIPMENT CONTAMINATION; HEPATITIS B; IMMUNIZATION; INDIAN OCEAN; NEEDLE SHARING; STATISTICS AND NUMERICAL DATA; TRANSMISSION;

BANGLADESH; BHUTAN; CLINICAL COMPETENCE; EQUIPMENT CONTAMINATION; HEALTH PERSONNEL; HEPATITIS B; HEPATITIS C; HUMANS; IMMUNIZATION; INDIA; INDIAN OCEAN ISLANDS; INJECTIONS; NEEDLE SHARING; NEPAL; PAKISTAN; SRI LANKA; STERILIZATION;

EID: 84977661065     PISSN: 10079327     EISSN: 22192840     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v22.i25.5837     Document Type: Review

References (71)

1. Gower E, Estes C, Blach S, Razavi-Shearer K, Razavi H. Global epidemiology and genotype distribution of the hepatitis C virus infection. J Hepatol 2014; 61: S45-S57 [PMID: 25086286 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2014.07.027]
2. Mohd Hanafiah K, Groeger J, Flaxman AD, Wiersma ST. Global epidemiology of hepatitis C virus infection: new estimates of agespecific antibody to HCV seroprevalence. Hepatology 2013; 57: 1333-1342 [PMID: 23172780 DOI: 10.1002/hep.26141]
3. Schweitzer A, Horn J, Mikolajczyk RT, Krause G, Ott JJ. Estimations of worldwide prevalence of chronic hepatitis B virus infection: a systematic review of data published between 1965 and 2013. Lancet 2015; 386: 1546-1555 [PMID: 26231459 DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(15)61412-X]
4. Qureshi H, Bile KM, Jooma R, Alam SE, Afridi HU. Prevalence of hepatitis B and C viral infections in Pakistan: findings of a national survey appealing for effective prevention and control measures. East Mediterr Health J 2010; 16 Suppl: S15-S23 [PMID: 21495584]
5. Razavi H. Polaris Observatory: Hepatitis C disease burden in India and Pakistan. Centre for Data Analysis, 2016
6. Khan AJ, Luby SP, Fikree F, Karim A, Obaid S, Dellawala S, Mirza S, Malik T, Fisher-Hoch S, McCormick JB. Unsafe injections and the transmission of hepatitis B and C in a periurban community in Pakistan. Bull World Health Organ 2000; 78: 956-963 [PMID: 10994278]
7. Luby SP, Qamruddin K, Shah AA, Omair A, Pahsa O, Khan AJ, McCormick JB, Hoodbhouy F, Fisher-Hoch S. The relationship between therapeutic injections and high prevalence of hepatitis C infection in Hafizabad, Pakistan. Epidemiol Infect 1997; 119: 349-356 [PMID: 9440439]
8. Singh J, Gupta S, Khare S, Bhatia R, Jain DC, Sokhey J. A severe and explosive outbreak of hepatitis B in a rural population in Sirsa district, Haryana, India: unnecessary therapeutic injections were a major risk factor. Epidemiol Infect 2000; 125: 693-699 [PMID: 11218219]
9. Bari A, Akhtar S, Rahbar MH, Luby SP. Risk factors for hepatitis C virus infection in male adults in Rawalpindi-Islamabad, Pakistan. Trop Med Int Health 2001; 6: 732-738 [PMID: 11555441]
10. Pasha O, Luby SP, Khan AJ, Shah SA, McCormick JB, Fisher-Hoch SP. Household members of hepatitis C virus-infected people in Hafizabad, Pakistan: infection by injections from health care providers. Epidemiol Infect 1999; 123: 515-518 [PMID: 10694166]
11. Singh J, Bhatia R, Khare S, Patnaik SK, Biswas S, Lal S, Jain DC, Sokhey J. Community studies on prevalence of HBsAg in two urban populations of southern India. Indian Pediatr 2000; 37: 149-152 [PMID: 10745409]
12. Singh J, Bhatia R, Patnaik SK, Khare S, Bora D, Jain DC, Sokhey J. Community studies on hepatitis B in Rajahmundry town of Andhra Pradesh, India, 1997-8: unnecessary therapeutic injections are a major risk factor. Epidemiol Infect 2000; 125: 367-375 [PMID: 11117960]
13. Usman HR, Akhtar S, Rahbar MH, Hamid S, Moattar T, Luby SP. Injections in health care settings: a risk factor for acute hepatitis B virus infection in Karachi, Pakistan. Epidemiol Infect 2003; 130: 293-300 [PMID: 12729198]
14. Reid S. Estimating the Burden of Disease from Unsafe Injections in India: A Cost-benefit Assessment of the Auto-disable Syringe in a Country with Low Blood-borne Virus Prevalence. Indian J Community Med 2012; 37: 89-94 [PMID: 22654281 DOI: 10.4103/0970-0218.96093]
15. Hauri AM, Armstrong GL, Hutin YJ. The global burden of disease attributable to contaminated injections given in health care settings. Int J STD AIDS 2004; 15: 7-16 [PMID: 14769164]
16. Wyatt HV. The popularity of injections in the Third World: origins and consequences for poliomyelitis. Soc Sci Med 1984; 19: 911-915 [PMID: 6515426]
17. Greenhalgh T. Drug prescription and self-medication in India: an exploratory survey. Soc Sci Med 1987; 25: 307-318 [PMID: 3629304]
18. World Bank. World Development Indicators 2015. Washington, DC: World Bank, 2015
19. Bhutta ZA, Gupta I, de'Silva H, Manandhar D, Awasthi S, Hossain SM, Salam MA. Maternal and child health: is South Asia ready for change? BMJ 2004; 328: 816-819 [PMID: 15070640 DOI: 10.1136/ bmj.328.7443.816]
20. Hutin Y, Hauri A, Chiarello L, Catlin M, Stilwell B, Ghebrehiwet T, Garner J. Best infection control practices for intradermal, subcutaneous, and intramuscular needle injections. Bull World Health Organ 2003; 81: 491-500 [PMID: 12973641]
21. Hanson K, Berman P. Private health care provision in developing countries: a preliminary analysis of levels and composition. Health Policy Plan 1998; 13: 195-211 [PMID: 10187592]
22. Raglow GJ, Luby SP, Nabi N. Therapeutic injections in Pakistan: from the patients' perspective. Trop Med Int Health 2001; 6: 69-75 [PMID: 11263465]
23. Janjua NZ, Akhtar S, Hutin YJ. Injection use in two districts of Pakistan: implications for disease prevention. Int J Qual Health Care 2005; 17: 401-408 [PMID: 15883127]
24. Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey 2012-13. Islamabad: National Institute of Population Studies (NIPS) and Macro International Inc., 2013: 1-366
25. Yousafzai MT, Nisar N, Kakakhel MF, Qadri MH, Khalil R, Hazara SM. Injection practices among practitioners in private medical clinics of Karachi, Pakistan. East Mediterr Health J 2013; 19: 570-575 [PMID: 24975187]
26. Janjua NZ, Akhtar S, Hutin YJ. Economic burden of unnecessary Injections in Pakistan. Proceedings of the AIDS 2006 - XVI International AIDS Conference; 2006 August 13, 2006; Toronto, Canada. Geneva: International AIDS Society, TUPE0504
27. Janjua NZ, Mahmood B, Imran Khan M. Does knowledge about bloodborne pathogens influence the reuse of medical injection syringes among women in Pakistan? J Infect Public Health 2014; 7: 345-355 [PMID: 24861642 DOI: 10.1016/j.jiph.2014.04.001]
28. Altaf A, Fatmi Z, Ajmal A, Hussain T, Qahir H, Agboatwalla M. Determinants of therapeutic injection overuse among communities in Sindh, Pakistan. J Ayub Med Coll Abbottabad 2004; 16: 35-38 [PMID: 15631369]
29. Janjua NZ, Hutin YJ, Akhtar S, Ahmad K. Population beliefs about the efficacy of injections in Pakistan's Sindh province. Public Health 2006; 120: 824-833
30. Luby S, Hoodbhoy F, Jan A, Shah A, Hutin Y. Long-term improvement in unsafe injection practices following community intervention. Int J Infect Dis 2005; 9: 52-59 [PMID: 15603995]
31. Ahmad K, Raza SA, Janjua NZ, Bin Hamza H, Khan MI. Interventions for improvement in unsafe injection practices in Pakistan. Int J Infect Dis 2005; 9: 232-233 [PMID: 15936969 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijid.2005.02.001]
32. Agboatwalla M, Hutin Y, Luby S, Mussarat A. A pilot intervention to improve injection practices in the informal private sector in Karachi, Pakistan. Abstract #AC 112. Proceedings of the second International Conference on Improving Use of Medicines (ICIUM); 2004, 30 March-2 April; Chiang Mai, Thailand: ICIUM, 2004
33. Altaf A, Shah SA, Shaikh K, Constable FM, Khamassi S. Lessons learned from a community based intervention to improve injection safety in Pakistan. BMC Res Notes 2013; 6: 159 [PMID: 23607289 DOI: 10.1186/1756-0500-6-159]
34. Kotwal A, Priya R, Thakur R, Gupta V, Kotwal J, Seth T. Injection practices in a metropolis of North India: perceptions, determinants and issues of safety. Indian J Med Sci 2004; 58: 334-344 [PMID: 15345887]
35. Lakshman M, Nichter M. Contamination of medicine injection paraphernalia used by registered medical practitioners in south India: an ethnographic study. Soc Sci Med 2000; 51: 11-28 [PMID: 10817465]
36. Murhekar MV, Murhekar KM, Arankalle VA, Sehgal SC. Epidemiology of hepatitis B infection among the Nicobarese- -a mongoloid tribe of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India. Epidemiol Infect 2002; 128: 465-471 [PMID: 12113491]
37. Rajasekaran M, Sivagnanam G, Thirumalaikolundusubramainan P, Namasivayam K, Ravindranath C. Injection practices in southern part of India. Public Health 2003; 117: 208-213 [PMID: 12825472]
38. Anand K, Pandav CS, Kapoor SK. Injection use in a village in north India. Natl Med J India 2001; 14: 143-144 [PMID: 11467141]
39. Kaipilyawar SB, Rao RG. Injection safety for immunisation- Andhra Pradesh experience. J Indian Med Assoc 2005; 103: 222-225 [PMID: 16173430]
40. IPEN Study Group. Injection practices in India. WHO South-East Asia Journal of Public Health 2012; 1: 189-200
41. Kermode M, Muani V. Injection practices in the formal & amp; informal healthcare sectors in rural north India. Indian J Med Res 2006; 124: 513-520 [PMID: 17213519]
42. Pandit NB, Choudhary SK. Unsafe injection practices in Gujarat, India. Singapore Med J 2008; 49: 936-939 [PMID: 19037563]
43. Bhargo L, Tiwari R, Jain S, Yuwane P, Rajpoot MB, Tiwari S. A study to assess injection practices at different levels of health care facilities in district Gwalior, MP, India. Int Res Med Sci 2014; 2: 1020-1025
44. Garapati S, Peethala S. Assessment of knowledge and practices on injection safety among service providers in east Godavari district of Andhra Pradesh. Indian J Community Health 2014; 26: 259-263
45. Hadiyono JE, Suryawati S, Danu SS, Sunartono B. Interactional group discussion: results of a controlled trial using a behavioral intervention to reduce the use of injections in public health facilities. Soc Sci Med 1996; 42: 1177-1183 [PMID: 8737436]
46. Hutin YJ. Acting upon evidence: progress towards the elimination of unsafe injection practices in India. Indian Pediatr 2005; 42: 111-115 [PMID: 15767704]
47. Kamath SS. IAP Workshop on Safe Injection Practices: recommendations and IAP plan of action. Indian Pediatr 2005; 42: 155-161 [PMID: 15767712]
48. Shankar U, Kanchan R. Model injection centre (MIC). J Indian Med Assoc 2005; 103: 226-227 [PMID: 16173431]
49. National Centre for Disease Control. Handbook on safe injection practices New Delhi. India: National Centre for Disease Control (NCDC), Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, 2014
50. Chowdhury AK, Roy T, Faroque AB, Bachar SC, Asaduzzaman M, Nasrin N, Akter N, Gazi HR, Lutful Kabir AK, Parvin M, Anderson C. A comprehensive situation assessment of injection practices in primary health care hospitals in Bangladesh. BMC Public Health 2011; 11: 779 [PMID: 21985397 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2458-11-779]
51. Shill MC, Fahad MB, Sarker S, Dev S, Rufaka H K, D AK. Injection practices at primary healthcare units in bangladesh: experience at six upazilla health complexes. Australas Med J 2011; 4: 26-42 [PMID: 23393500 DOI: 10.4066/AMJ.2011.471]
52. Gyawali S, Rathore DS, Shankar PR, Kumar VK, Maskey M, Jha N. Injection practice in Kaski district, Western Nepal: a community perspective. BMC Public Health 2015; 15: 435 [PMID: 25928311 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-015-1775-5]
53. Bhattarai M, Wittet S. Perceptions about Injections and Private Sector Injection Practices in Central Nepal. General Welfare Pratisthan and Gates Children's Vaccine Program at PATH, 2000
54. Gyawali S, Rathore DS, Adhikari K, Shankar PR, K C VK, Basnet S. Pharmacy practice and injection use in community pharmacies in Pokhara city, Western Nepal. BMC Health Serv Res 2014; 14: 190 [PMID: 24774195 DOI: 10.1186/1472-6963-14-190]
55. Gunasekera HA, Sunil-Chandra NP, de Silva HJ. Low community seroprevalence of hepatitis C virus infection in the Gampaha district. Ceylon Med J 2002; 47: 122 [PMID: 12661342]
56. Premawardhena AP, Premaratne R, Jayaweera G, Costa S, Chandrasena LG, de Silva HJ. Hepatitis B and C virus markers among new entrant medical students. Ceylon Med J 1999; 44: 120-122 [PMID: 10675996]
57. Hsiao WC, Li K. A preliminary assessment of Sri Lanka's health sector and steps forward: William Hsiao, 2000
58. Attanayake N, Siyambalagoda L. An inquiry into the regulation of pharmaceuticals and medical practice in Sri Lanka. HEFP working paper 05/03. London, UK: London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, 2003: viii 70
59. Rannan-Eliya RP, Jayawardhane P. Private primary care practitioners in Sri Lanka. Health Policy Research in South Asia, 2003: 279
60. Janjua NZ, Khan MI, Usman HR, Azam I, Khalil M, Ahmad K. Pattern of health care utilization and determinants of care-seeking from GPs in two districts of Pakistan. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 2006; 37: 1242-1253 [PMID: 17333784]
61. Bhunia R, Hutin Y, Ramkrishnan R, Ghosh PK, Dey S, Murhekar M. Reducing use of injections through interactional group discussions: a randomized controlled trial. Indian Pediatr 2010; 47: 409-414 [PMID: 19736370]
62. Bronfenbrenner U. The ecology of human development: Experiments by design and nature. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979
63. Janjua NZ, Razaq M, Chandir S, Rozi S, Mahmood B. Poor knowledge-predictor of nonadherence to universal precautions for blood borne pathogens at first level care facilities in Pakistan. BMC Infect Dis 2007; 7: 81 [PMID: 17650331]
64. Sallis JF, Owen N, Fisher EB. Ecological models of health behavior. In: Glanz K, Rimer BK, Viswanath K, editors. Health behavior and health education: Theory, research, and practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2008: 465-486
65. Bandura A. Self-efficacy. Wiley Online Library, 1994
66. Becker ML, Reza-Paul S, Ramesh B, Washington R, Moses S, Blanchard JF. Association between medical injections and HIV infection in a community-based study in India. AIDS 2005; 19: 1334-1336 [PMID: 16052095]
67. Kermode M, Holmes W, Langkham B, Thomas MS, Gifford S. Safer injections, fewer infections: injection safety in rural north India. Trop Med Int Health 2005; 10: 423-432 [PMID: 15860088 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2005.01421.x]
68. Shah HD, Mangal AD, Solanki HR, Parmar DV. Unsafe injection practices: An occupational hazard for health care providers and a potential threat for community: A detailed study on injection practices of health care providers. IJHAS 2014; 3: 28
69. Bendale N, Bhatkule P. Assessment of injection safety practices in tertiary institute in Maharashtra, India. Int J Recent Trends Sci Technol 2015; 15: 622-625
70. Mantel C. Survey on the safety of injections in Pakistan. Assignment report, 17 May 2002. Islamabad: Ministry of Health, Govrnment of Pakistan, 2002
71. Gibney L, Saquib N, Metzger J, Choudhury P, Siddiqui M, Hassan M. Human immunodeficiency virus, hepatitis B, C and D in Bangladesh's trucking industry: prevalence and risk factors. Int J Epidemiol 2001; 30: 878-884 [PMID: 11511620]