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Gender & History

Volumn 1, Issue 2, 1989, Pages 178-199

Questions of Gender: Deskilling and Demasculinization in the U.S. Printing Industry, 1830‐1915

(1) BARON, AVA a

a NONE

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EID: 84977368331 PISSN: 09535233 EISSN: 14680424 Source Type: Journal
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-0424.1989.tb00248.x Document Type: Article

Times cited : (32)

References (106)

1
- 84977327087
- This essay is based on material from my book manuscript, ‘Men's Work and the Woman Question: The Transformation of Gender and Work in the Printing Industry, 1830–1920.’ Many thanks to Nancy Hewitt, Leonore Davidoff, Keith McClelland, Richard Butsch and Sonya Rose for comments and encouragement. I am grateful to Joan Scott whose comments on my earlier work led me to study how language illuminates the dynamics of gender.

2
- 84977402126
- New York State Department of Labor, Annual Report, J. B. Lyon, Albany, 1913, p., Edith Abbott, Women in Industry: A Study in American Economic History, (D. Appleton & Co., NY, 1910), p. 251.
- (1911) New York Typographical Union No. 6: Study of a Modern Trade Union and its Predecessors , pp. 421
- Stevens¹

3
- 84977382687
- Introductory Remarks to the Constitution of 1833
- International Typographical Union, Indianapolis
- (1913) History of the Typographical Union, Its Beginnings, Progress and Development , pp. 66
- George¹

4
- 0001866041
- Sex and Skill in the Capitalist Labour Process
- For feminist challenges to the concept of skill see:,. Case studies now document the gendered construction of skill. See, Ava Baron, ‘Contested Terrain Revisited: Technology and Gender Definitions of Work in the Printing Industry, 1850–1920’ in, Women, Work, and Technology: Transformations, ed., Barbara Wright et al., University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, MI, 1987, pp. 58–83;, Cynthia Cockburn, Brothers: Male Dominance and Technological Change, (Pluto Press, London, 1983); and, Sonya O. Rose, ‘Gender Segregation in the Transition to the Factory: The English Hosiery Industry, 1850–1910, Feminist Studies, 13, (Spring 1987), pp. 163–184. For discussion of issues raised by scholarship on gender and skill, see, Paul Thompson, The Nature of Work: An Introduction to Debates on the Labour Process, (Macmillan, London, 1983), Chapter 7. Much research now documents women's as well as men's resistance to the degradation of their [Truncated]
- (1980) Feminist Review , vol.6 , pp. 79-88
- Phillips¹ Barbara²

5
- 0003538661
- R. W. Connell discusses the limitations of marxist‐feminist analysis that locates the social reproduction of patriarchy in ideology or housework in, Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA, esp. Chapter 3. See various dimensions of the theoretical debates about the relations between women's subordination and capitalist production, in, Roberta Hamilton, Michele Barrett, (eds), The Politics of Diversity: Feminism, Marxism and Nationalism, (Verso, London, 1987). For a discussion of issues of gender and class see:, Rosemary Crompton, Michael Mann, (eds), Gender and Stratification, (Polity Press, London, 1986).
- (1987) Gender and Power: Society, the Person and Sexual Politics

6
- 84925931226
- The Material of Male Power
- Despite commendable efforts to uncover the ‘material base’ of patriarchy our explanation of how or why ‘gender matters’ has been limited. See
- (1981) Feminist Review , vol.9 , pp. 41-58
- Cynthia¹

7
- 0000310856
- Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis
- For a discussion of the concept of gender see
- (1986) The American Historical Review , vol.91 , Issue.5 , pp. 1053-1075
- Scott¹

8
- 0009337513
- The Reorientation of American Culture in the 1890's
- See, for examples:, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, Elliot J. Gorn, The Manly Art: Bare Knuckle Prize Fighters in America (Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, 1986).
- (1970) Writing American History: Essays on Modern Scholarship , pp. 73-117
- Higham¹

9
- 84977375012
- Institutionalizing Masculinity: The Law as a Masculine Profession,’ in Meanings for Manhood: Constructions of Masculinity in Victorian America, eds, Mark C. Carnes, Clyde Griffen, (forthcoming).

10
- 84898839461
- Worker's Control of Machine Production in the Nineteenth Century
- Few labour historians have explored working‐class masculinity. David Montgomery pointed to its significance for male artisans' work culture in,. Recently a few researchers have turned their attention to the topic. On the U.S. see: Baron, ‘Contested Terrain Revisited,’ pp. 58–83 and essays by, Baron, Mary Blewett, Ileen De Vault, Nancy Hewitt, Ava Baron, (ed), Work Engendered: Towards a New Understanding of Men, Women and Work (Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, forthcoming). On British working class masculinity see, Learning to Labor: How Working Class Kids Get Working Class Jobs (Saxon House, Westmead UK, 1977) and his ‘Shop‐floor Culture, Masculinity, and the Wage Form’, in, John Charles Crichter, Richard Johnson, (eds), Working‐Class Culture: Studies in History and Theory (St. Martin's Press, NY, 1979), pp. [Truncated]
- (1976) Labor History , vol.17 , pp. 485-509
- Willis¹

11
- 80053202554
- On the development of the market as a social construct see:, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
- (1984) The Rise of Market Culture: The Textile Trade in French Society, 1750–1900
- William¹

12
- 84977337453
- For example, see: Address of Corresponding Secretary of the Franklin Typographical Society, 1844 in Tracy, History of the Typographical Union

13
- 84977395197
- Address by New York Typographical Society to the Journeymen Printers of New York & Vicinity, 29 June 1837, in Tracy, History of the Typographical Union

14
- 84977366431
- History of the Typographical Union
- Tracy¹

15
- 84977389469
- Address of Corresponding Secretary of the Franklin Typographical Society, 1844 in Tracy, A History of the Typographical Union

16
- 84977377055
- The Printer, ; see also, for example, Massachusetts Legislature, House Document #44: ‘Remonstrance of Printers in Boston, Re: Remuneration now received for their labor,’ (Feb. 1849), pp. 2
- (1864) , pp. 116-3

17
- 84977383451
- Circular letter to the Master Printers of the City of NY by New York Typographical Society, 13 July 1811, in Stevens, New York Typographical Union No. 6

18
- 84977435266
- A History of the Typographical Union, ; Circular letter to Master Printers by New York Typographical Society, New York, in Stevens, New York Typograghical Union No. 6, pp. 67–68
- (1811) , pp. 34-36
- Tracy¹

19
- 84977315458
- Circular letter to Master Printers by New York Typographical Society, New York, 13 July 1811, in Stevens, New York Typographical Union No. 6

20
- 0039838639
- Columbia University and Longmans, Green and Co., NY
- (1921) American Apprenticeship and Industrial Education , pp. 61
- Douglas¹

21
- 84977380583
- Philadephia Social Science Association, Philadelphia
- (1882) Apprenticeship As It Was and Is , pp. 7-8
- Addison¹

22
- 84977325991
- Report of the Committee of the Printers' Union on the State of the Trade
- The Committee on Apprentices of the New York Printers' Union claimed that the city was being flooded with apprentices., New York, compiler, Typographic Collection, Manuscript Division, Columbia University,. For a study of the conditions of apprenticeship in the 19th century, see: New York State, Bureau of Labor Statistics, 4th Annual Report, 1886
- (1850) Printers' Scraps , vol.9 , pp. 76
- Munsell¹

23
- 84977357533
- Introductory Remarks of Constitution of 1833, New York Typographical Society, in Tracy, A History of the Typographical Union

24
- 84977332597
- Bulletin#61, GPO, Washington, D. C
- (1905) A Documentary History of the Early Organization of Printers , vol.11 , pp. 934
- Ethelbert¹

25
- 84977398681
- American Apprenticeship.
- Douglas¹

26
- 84977424535
- Series, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, p. 36
- (1907) Apprenticeship and American Trade Unions. Johns Hopkins University Studies , vol.25 , pp. 11-12
- James¹

27
- 84977335611
- Address to Journeymen Printers, 1850, in Tracy, A History of the Typographical Union

28
- 84977402677
- Boston Courier,. During the colonial period arid early republic it was not unusual for women to work in family print shops along with their fathers, Brothers and husbands. There are also many examples of single women and widows who gained renown for their printing abilities. Throughout the 19th century women continued to work as printers, but they were mostly employed in book, job and small country offices. See: Ava Baron, ‘Woman's “Place” in Capitalist Production: A study of Class Relations in the Nineteenth Century Newspaper Production.’ unpublished Ph.D Dissertation, New York University, 1981
- (1830) , pp. 2

29
- 84977332495
- Finchers' Trades Review
- (1864)

30
- 84977332618
- Boston Courier
- (1830) , pp. 2

31
- 84977345953
- Women on Top
- Natalie Davis, Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA, 1975, pp. 124–, 151, for an analysis of how comic sexual inversions symbolized social disorder
- (1830) Society and Culture in Early Modem France , pp. 2

32
- 84970301491
- Women and the Making of the American Working Class: A Study of the Proletarianization of Printers
- For a more detailed discussion of the petticoat invasion during these decades, see
- (1982) Review of Radical Political Economics , vol.14 , Issue.3 , pp. 23-42
- Baron¹

33
- 84977364527
- ca. 1853 in Munsell
- Printers' Scraps , vol.9 , pp. 93

34
- 84977431592
- A Chapter on Printers: Revolution in the Trade’, Chicago Post
- (1864)

35
- 84977406935
- Walker, Wise and Co., Boston ,. Publishers of women reform papers such as The Una, The Lily, The Literary Journal also advocated making typesetting women's work and hired women (below union rates) as printers. See Baron, ‘Woman's “Place.”’
- (1863) The Employments of Women: A Cyclopedia of Women's Work
- Virginia¹

36
- 84977317716
- Woman's Work and Wages
- (1868) Harper's , vol.37 , pp. 530

37
- 84977332371
- Women in Printing Offices
- (1886) Inland Printer , vol.3 , Issue.8 , pp. 470

38
- 84977323355
- and II, (Nov. 1867), p. 328
- (1867) Printers' Circular , vol.1 , pp. 161

39
- 84977315180
- (1868) Printers' Circular , vol.3 , pp. 293

40
- 84977368239
- National Typographical Union Convention, 1854, in Stevens, New York Typographical Union No. 6

41
- 84977436882
- (1884) Inland Printer , vol.2 , Issue.3 , pp. 109-110

42
- 84977415837
- On printers' work culture in the U.S., see: Baron, ‘Women and the Making of the American Working Class’; in Britain see: Cockburn, Brothers.

43
- 84977423219
- Communication by the Printers' Union to Philadephia Daily News, 1854, in Stevens, New York Typographical Union No. 6

44
- 84977411575
- Finchers' Trades Review
- (1864)

45
- 25444435044
- L'Ouvriere! Mot implie, sordide…”: Women Workers in the Discourse of French Political Economy, 1840–1860
- See: Davis' discussion of the uses of sexual inversions and uses of sexual symbolism in preindustrial Europe, in ‘Women on Top.’ On women used as a metaphor for talking about problems of the working class in the discourse of French political economy, see, Patrick Joyce, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
- (1987) The Historical Meanings of Woric , pp. 119-142
- Scott¹

46
- 84977343354
- Quoted in Stevens, New York Typographical Union No. 6

47
- 84977346853
- Address to Printers of the U.S., ITU, Indianapolis, 1925, p., ; New York Tribune, July 17, 1854, in Stevens, New York Typographical Union No. 6, p. 427
- (1850) Epochal History of the International Typographical Union , pp. 24
- James¹

48
- 84977352803
- Finchers' Trades Review
- (1864)

49
- 84977316597
- Finchers' Trades Review
- (1864)

50
- 84977373791
- Finchers' Trades Review
- (1864)

51
- 84977378885
- Letter to the Editor, Finchers' Trades Review, 21 May 1864.

52
- 84977324488
- New York Tribune, ; and The Printer, August 1864.
- (1854)

53
- 84977379715
- Finchers' Trades Review
- (1864)

54
- 84977385075
- Finchers' Trades Review
- (1864)

55
- 84977376228
- Report of Special Committee on Female Compositors, ITU Convention, 1867, in Stevens, New Yoric Typographical Union No. 6,. For further discussion of the ITU's equal pay policy during the 1860s see Baron, ‘Women and the Making of the American Working Class.’

56
- 84977385151
- The Printer
- (1864)

57
- 84977340635
- Majority Report of the Special Committee on Female Compositors, ITU Convention, 1867, in Stevens, New York Typograhical Union No. 6

58
- 84977342875
- Letter to the Editor, Finchers' Trades Review
- (1864)

59
- 84977321065
- ‘Women and the Making of the American Working Class,’ pp.
- Baron¹

60
- 84977428800
- New York Typographical Union, 315, 420
- Stevens¹

61
- 84977437919
- New York Typographical Union No. 6, Burk, American Apprenticeship, pp. 11–, 17
- Stevens¹

62
- 84977434028
- 4th Annual Report
- (1886) , pp. 123

63
- 84977328818
- American Apprenticeship
- Burk¹

64
- 84977384140
- 16th Annual Report, (Officers' Reports, 1920), p. 252;, Annual Report, 1924, pp. 167–169.
- (1901) , pp. 499-501

65
- 84977395274
- Introduction of the Linotype
- Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA
- (1926) Chapters on Machinery and Labor
- George¹

66
- 84887709838
- lists over 70 different typesetting machines adopted before, Inland Printer Co., Chicago, [, 1904]; rpt., Arno Press, NY, 1972
- (1904) History of Composing Machines
- Thompson¹

67
- 84977340157
- For further discussion of the role of class and gender in the development and implementation of the linotype, see Baron, ‘Contested Terrain Revisited.

68
- 84977331055
- According to one estimate each machine displaced two printers during the initial stages of the machine's introduction. Barnett, ‘Introduction of the Linotype,’ p. 6; The linotype reduced the number of jobs required for the same work by about 60%. As the industry expanded, increased work reduced the extent of unemployment., Bulletin No. 47, G.P.O., Washington, D. C
- (1929) Productivity of Labor in Newspaper Printing. U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics , pp. 10-11
- Swen¹

69
- 84977433321
- Unsteady employment of printers was common in the 19th century. Printers developed a substitute system partly in response to these conditions. Control over this system was part of their ‘job property rights
- King's Crown Press, NY
- (1954) Job Property Rights: A Study of Job Controls of the International Typographical Union
- Arthur¹

70
- 84977412257
- 4th Annual Report, Part I, 24. Women's work in the ‘sphere of consumption’ was not considered ‘productive’ since it did not receive a wage. Yet workingmen exhibited much ambivalence about women's power and control over this sphere in shaping workingmen's bargaining positions with employers. I take up this topic in more detail in my discussion of the women's auxiliaries of the typographical union, boycotts and the union label in my book manuscript, ‘Men's Work and the Woman Question.’
- (1886) , pp. 23

71
- 84977358841
- GPO, Washington, D.C.
- (1901) Report of the Industrial Commission on the Relations and Conditions of Capital and Labor. Vol. 7, Manufacturers and General Business and Testimony Taken 1 November 1899 , pp. 620-621

72
- 84977413403
- When the Linotype Came: How the Craft was Stirred by the Appearance of the First Successful Composing Machines Forty Years Ago
- Farrar and Rinehart, NY, Charles J. Dumas, Typographical Journal, September 1931, p. 244.
- (1944) The Printing Trades , vol.79 , pp. 48
- Jacob¹

73
- 84977339599
- Typewritten as Typesetters
- For further discussion of the competing claims about the gender definitions of linotype work see: Baron, ‘Contested Terrain Revisited.’
- (1905) Editor and Publisher , vol.5 , Issue.15

74
- 84977429209
- (1885) Inland Printer , vol.2 , Issue.10 , pp. 439

75
- 84977315578
- (1911) Labor Bulletin , vol.358

76
- 84977414606
- 25th Annual Report, 41–, ; Inland Printer, (Oct. 1884), p. 33;, Bulletin No. 2, (1897), p. 255.
- (1895) , pp. 29-45

77
- 84977415746
- (1901) The Unionist , vol.24 , pp. 26

78
- 84977312736
- 24th Annual Report
- (1906) , pp. 93

79
- 84977415746
- (1901) The Unionist , vol.24 , pp. 26

80
- 84977406748
- 24th Annual Report
- (1906) , pp. 93

81
- 84977434091
- (1906) Bulletin , vol.13 , Issue.67 , pp. 707

82
- 84977330221
- (1913) , pp. 97

83
- 84977408567
- Although women have always been a minority in the US printing industry the percentage of women printers appears to have declined even further immediately following the linotype's introduction. In 1904 only 5% of the total of typesetting machine operators in the US and Canada were women. Barnett, ‘Introduction of the Linotype,’ p.

84
- 84977425999
- The Printing Trades
- Loft¹

85
- 84977338346
- (1895) Minutes , vol.5 , pp. 307

86
- 84977329913
- (1911) Typographical Journal , vol.39 , Issue.5 , pp. 525

87
- 84977346416
- (1897) Inland Printer , vol.20 , Issue.3 , pp. 103

88
- 84977322467
- Report of President
- 4
- (1911) Typographical journal , vol.39 , pp. 32

89
- 84977354218
- (1895) Inland Printer , vol.15 , Issue.6 , pp. 594

90
- 84977397338
- (1897) Typographical Journal , vol.32 , Issue.3 , pp. 303

91
- 84977322467
- Report of President
- (1911) Typographical Journal , vol.39 , Issue.4 , pp. 32

92
- 84977413821
- Developing Efficient Printers,’ reprinted from Printing Trade News
- (1913) Apprenticeship Bulletin , vol.7 , Issue.10 , pp. 135-136

93
- 84977311568
- For a more detailed discussion of this point, see Baron, ‘An “Other” Side of Gender Antagonism at Work’ in ed. Baron, Work Engendered
- (1898) Inland Printer , vol.20 , Issue.5 , pp. 629

94
- 84977395072
- and X: 12, (15 June 1897) pp. 465–6
- (1896) Typographical Journal , vol.9 , Issue.2 , pp. 425-426

95
- 84977392793
- Report of Committee on Apprentices
- 65th Session of ITU, Albany, New York, (:2, August 1920), p.
- (1914) Typographical Journal , vol.57 , pp. 245

96
- 84977395072
- and X: 12, (15 June 1897), pp. 465–6
- (1896) Typographical Journal , vol.9 , Issue.11 , pp. 425-426

97
- 84977340592
- 37th Annual Report
- May 1916, p. 744.
- (1907) Typographical Journal , vol.48 , Issue.5 , pp. 9-11

98
- 84977375657
- ‘Introduction of the Linotype,’ p.
- Barnett¹

99
- 84977426227
- Columbia University Press, NY, Stevens, New York Typographical Union No. 6, pp. 462–, 3
- (1933) Displacement of Men by Machines: Effects of Technological Change in Commercial Printing , pp. 117
- Elizabeth¹

100
- 84977431648
- The Kind of Boy the Printer Wants
- by, (published by the United Typothetae and Franklin Clubs of America)
- (1915) Apprentice Bulletin , vol.1 , Issue.7 , pp. 13-15
- Stewart, A.A.¹

101
- 84977426946
- In 1912 both employers (represented by the National Association of Manufacturers) and the American Federation of Labor supported a federal bill for publicly funded industrial education., American Apprenticeship
- Douglas¹

102
- 84977391384
- Men's Work and the Woman Question,’ and Susan Lehrer
- For further discussion of the controversy over the New York State night work legislation and women printers see:, State University of New York Press, Albany, NY, Chapter 7. On gender and the judicial ideology of protective labor legislation in the United States see:, Ava Baron, ‘Protective Labor Legislation and the Cult of Domesticity,’, Journal of Family Issues, March 1981, pp., Eileen Boris, ‘“A Man's Dwelling House Is His Castle”: Tenement House Cigar Making and the Judical Imperative,’ in Baron, Work Engendered; Kessler‐Harris, Out to Work, Chapter 7; Judith Baer, The Chains of Protection: The Judical Response to Women's Labor Legislation, (Greenwood, Westport, Ct., 1978). On contradictory definitions of equality built into state policy and feminist legal strategies see:, Ava Baron, ‘Feminist Legal Strategies: The Powers of Difference,’ in, Analyzing Gender: A Handbook [Truncated]
- (1987) The Origins of Protective Labor Legislation for Women, 1905–1925 , vol.2 , Issue.1 , pp. 25-38
- Baron¹

103
- 84977327354
- For further discussion of this point see: Baron, ‘An “Other” Side of Gender Antagonism at Work.

104
- 2442738410
- Various machines introduced since the early 20th century separated keyboard work from typecasting. For example, the teletypesetter introduced in the 1950s automatically operated a linotype using punched tape produced by a keyboard operator. For further discussion of the implications of current technologies in printing in the U.S., D. C. Heath and Co., Lexington, MA, ; in Britain, See: Cockburn, Brothers.
- (1980) Printers Face Automation: The Impact of Technology on Work and Retirement among Skilled Craftsmen
- Rogers¹ Nathalie²

105
- 79954262326
- The Eclipse of Craft: The Changing Face of Labor in the Newspaper Industry
- Women were 17% of typesetters and compositors in 1970 and 56% by 1980. The number of typesetters and compositors fell 18.5% during the same decade. Between 1970 and 1982 in 432 newspapers in the U.S. 7,600 composing room jobs were lost. Patricia Roos, ‘Women in the Composing Room: Technology and Organization as Determinants of Social Change’ paper presented at the American Sociological Association, NYC, Daniel B. Cornfield, Plenum Press, NY, 1987,. p.,. Cockburn (Brothers, p. 65) estimates that the ITU lost one‐third of its membership between 1968 and 1975
- (1986) Workers, Managers, and Technological Change: Emerging Patterns of Labor Relations , pp. 65
- Kalleberg¹

106
- 84977415436
- ‘The Eclipse of Craft,’ esp. pp.
- Kalleberg¹

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