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Volumn 30, Issue , 1980, Pages 91-108

From office-holding to civil service: The genesis of modern bureaucracy

(1)  Aylmer, G E a  

a NONE

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EID: 84976193233     PISSN: 00804401     EISSN: 14740648     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3679004     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (53)

References (80)
  • 1
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    • ‘Civil Service’, ‘Public Office’, ‘Public Servants/Service’
    • London See New English Dictionary gives the earliest known use of the term ‘civil service’ from a Treasury letter of 1816
    • See New English Dictionary, ‘Civil Service’, ‘Public Office’, ‘Public Servants/Service’. D. M. Young, The Colonial Office in the Early 19th Century (London, 1961), pp. 8, 163, gives the earliest known use of the term ‘civil service’ from a Treasury letter of 1816;
    • (1961) D. M. Young, The Colonial Office in the Early 19th Century , vol.8 , pp. 163
  • 2
    • 84976150835 scopus 로고
    • Blackstone's well-known definition of an office as ‘a right to exercise a public or private employment, and to take the fees and emoluments thereunto belonging’ is quoted in E. W. Cohen
    • repr. 1965 London n. 1
    • Blackstone's well-known definition of an office as ‘a right to exercise a public or private employment, and to take the fees and emoluments thereunto belonging’ is quoted in E. W. Cohen, The Growth oj the British Civil Service 1780–1939 (London, 1941; repr. 1965), p. 20, n. 1.
    • (1941) The Growth oj the British Civil Service , vol.1780-1939 , pp. 20
  • 4
    • 42449091256 scopus 로고
    • For the 1780s,see (in order of publication): Law Quarterly Revue
    • For the 1780s,see (in order of publication): D. L. Keir, ‘Economical Reform, 1779–1787′, Law Quarterly Revue 1 (1934), 368–85;
    • (1934) ‘Economical Reform, 1779–1787′ , vol.1 , pp. 368-385
    • Keir, D.L.1
  • 5
    • 84975945663 scopus 로고
    • Growth of the British Civil Service, chs. II-IV; B. Kemp, ‘Crewe's Act, 1782’
    • Cohen, Growth of the British Civil Service, chs. II-IV; B. Kemp, ‘Crewe's Act, 1782’, Eng. Hist. Rev., lxviii (1953), 258–63;
    • (1953) Eng. Hist. Rev. , vol.lxviii , pp. 258-263
    • Cohen1
  • 12
    • 84979410065 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ‘The Emergence of Constitutional Bureaucracy in the British Foreign Office, 1782–1841′
    • C. R. Middleton, ‘The Emergence of Constitutional Bureaucracy in the British Foreign Office, 1782–1841′, Public Administration, liii (1975), 365–81;
    • Public Administration , vol.liii
    • Middleton, C.R.1
  • 13
    • 0003374589 scopus 로고
    • ‘Social Class and Bureaucratic Innovation: the Commissioners for Examining the Public Accounts 1780–1787′
    • J. R. Torrance, ‘Social Class and Bureaucratic Innovation: the Commissioners for Examining the Public Accounts 1780–1787′, Past & Present, 78 (1978), 56–81.
    • (1978) Past & Present , vol.78 , pp. 56-81
    • Torrance, J.R.1
  • 17
    • 84975976898 scopus 로고
    • 1689–1697 (Cambridge See and 683–6
    • See J. Ehrman, The Navy in the War of William III 1689–1697 (Cambridge, 1953), pp. 595–8 and 683–6.
    • (1953) The Navy in the War of William , vol.III , pp. 595-598
    • Ehrman, J.1
  • 18
    • 0002223341 scopus 로고
    • London cites and discusses various uses of the phrase in a general political sense, but not specifically in terms of government or administration
    • J. A. W. Gunn, Politics and the Public Interest in the 17th Century (London, 1969), cites and discusses various uses of the phrase in a general political sense, but not specifically in terms of government or administration.
    • (1969) Politics and the Public Interest in the 17th Century
    • Gunn, J.A.W.1
  • 21
    • 84976038699 scopus 로고
    • An Inquiry into the Causes of our Naval Miscarriages …
    • and (a little later, during the next war) 2nd edn., London, 1707
    • and (a little later, during the next war) An Inquiry into the Causes of our Naval Miscarriages … (2nd edn., London, 1707, repr. in Harleian Miscellany, vol. I (1748), pp. 547–64.
    • (1748) repr. in Harleian Miscellany , vol.I , pp. 547-564
  • 23
    • 0007210394 scopus 로고
    • New York For the Customs, see repr. Newton Abbot, 1968), and among contemporary works, Anon., The Undue Administration: Or, The Usual Managements of the Customs Considered; And Compar'd with the late pernicious Practices of Removing and Placing Officers, contrary to all former Precedents … (London, 1718), against the political purges conducted by the Whigs since 1714; and the pamphlets of Henry Crouch in the 1720s on the system of duties and the establishment. Forthe Excise, besides Hughes, Studies, see R. E., Choice Chips of Revenue Lore. Being Papers relating to the Establishment of the Excise … (Portsmouth, 1877), with many extracts from original departmental documents;
    • For the Customs, see E. E. Hoon, The Organisation of the English Customs System 1696–1786 (New York, 1938; repr. Newton Abbot, 1968), and among contemporary works, Anon., The Undue Administration: Or, The Usual Managements of the Customs Considered; And Compar'd with the late pernicious Practices of Removing and Placing Officers, contrary to all former Precedents … (London, 1718), against the political purges conducted by the Whigs since 1714; and the pamphlets of Henry Crouch in the 1720s on the system of duties and the establishment. Forthe Excise, besides Hughes, Studies, see R. E., Choice Chips of Revenue Lore. Being Papers relating to the Establishment of the Excise … (Portsmouth, 1877), with many extracts from original departmental documents;
    • (1938) The Organisation of the English Customs System 1696–1786
    • Hoon, E.E.1
  • 25
    • 79954513404 scopus 로고
    • London which despite its title has less meat in it than either R. E. or Owens. Among contemporary works set Instructions for tke Gaugers of Excise in the Country (London, 1712)
    • B. R. Leftwich, A History of the Excise … (London, (?) 1909), which despite its title has less meat in it than either R. E. or Owens. Among contemporary works set Instructions for tke Gaugers of Excise in the Country (London, 1712);
    • (1909) A History of the Excise
    • Leftwich, B.R.1
  • 27
    • 84976150421 scopus 로고
    • London Owens lists six works on gauging published between 1678 and the first edition of Leadbetter in the 1740s
    • Samuel Clark, The British Gauger … (London, 1761). Owens lists six works on gauging published between 1678 and the first edition of Leadbetter in the 1740s.
    • (1761) The British Gauger
    • Clark, S.1
  • 30
    • 84976084827 scopus 로고
    • Letter 79 ed. C. F. Hardy (London 5 May 1776
    • Benenden Letters, London, Country and Abroad 1753–1821, ed. C. F. Hardy (London, 1901), Letter 79, pp. 139–40 (5 May 1776).
    • (1901) London, Country and Abroad 1753–1821 , pp. 139-140
    • Letters, B.1
  • 31
    • 84976108493 scopus 로고
    • ‘Admiralty Secretaries and the British Civil Service’
    • Besides general histories of the Royal Navy, see
    • Besides general histories of the Royal Navy, see F. B. Wickwire, ‘Admiralty Secretaries and the British Civil Service’, Huntington Library Qtrly., xxviii (1964–1965), 23554;
    • (1964) Huntington Library Qtrly , vol.xxviii , pp. 23554
    • Wickwire, F.B.1
  • 34
    • 84976201850 scopus 로고
    • The Preparation ofNaval Estimates and the Beginnings of Treasury Control’
    • The Preparation ofNaval Estimates and the Beginnings of Treasury Control’, The Mariner's Mirror, liii (1967), 63–72
    • (1967) The Mariner's Mirror , vol.liii , pp. 63-72
  • 35
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    • ‘Royal Dockyards: The Earliest Visitations and Reforms, 1749–1778′
    • J. M. Haas, ‘Royal Dockyards: The Earliest Visitations and Reforms, 1749–1778′, Hist. Jnl., xiii (1970), 191–215;
    • (1970) Hist. Jnl. , vol.xiii , pp. 191-215
    • Haas, J.M.1
  • 36
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    • ed. D. Baugh (Navy Rec. Soc.
    • Naval Administration 1715–50, ed. D. Baugh (Navy Rec. Soc., vol. 120, 1977);
    • (1977) Naval Administration 1715–50 , vol.120
  • 37
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    • ‘The Rebuilding and Repair of the Fleet, 1783–93′
    • P. L. C. Webb, ‘The Rebuilding and Repair of the Fleet, 1783–93′, Bull. Inst. Hist. Res., 1 (1977), 194–209;
    • (1977) Bull. Inst. Hist. Res. , vol.1 , pp. 194-209
    • Webb, P.L.C.1
  • 38
    • 34447421950 scopus 로고
    • ‘Wages and Manning: the Navy Act of 1758′
    • There are many, earlier articles in the Mariner's Mirror still of relevance. Of the older works, C. N. Robinson, The British Fleet (London, 1894)
    • S. F. Gradish, ‘Wages and Manning: the Navy Act of 1758′, Eng. Hist. Rev., xciii (1978), 46–67. There are many, earlier articles in the Mariner's Mirror still of relevance. Of the older works, C. N. Robinson, The British Fleet (London, 1894)
    • (1978) Eng. Hist. Rev. , vol.xciii , pp. 46-67
    • Gradish, S.F.1
  • 39
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    • London and are among the most useful
    • and R. V. Hamilton, Naval Administration … (London, 1896), are among the most useful;
    • (1896) Naval Administration
    • Hamilton, R.V.1
  • 47
    • 84976073083 scopus 로고
    • rev. edn. by C. H. Stuart, 1962 Oxford art. ‘Thomas Parker; B. Williams 203n
    • D.N.B., art. ‘Thomas Parker; B. Williams, The Whig Supremecy 1714–60 (Oxford, 1939; rev. edn. by C. H. Stuart, 1962), pp. 63–64, 203n.;
    • (1939) The Whig Supremecy 1714–60 , pp. 63-64
  • 50
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    • London and Of these, Williams's account is the fullest
    • and W. A. Speck, Stability and Strife: England 1714–1760 (London, 1977), pp. 230–1. Of these, Williams's account is the fullest.
    • (1977) Stability and Strife: England 1714–1760 , pp. 230-231
    • Speck, W.A.1
  • 51
    • 84976113092 scopus 로고
    • London The literature on this is very extensive. See D.N.B., art. ‘Bacon’
    • The literature on this is very extensive. See J. Spedding, Letters and Life of Francis Bacon … vol. VII (London, 1874); D.N.B., art. ‘Bacon’;
    • (1874) Letters and Life of Francis Bacon , vol.VII
    • Spedding, J.1
  • 52
    • 84976113098 scopus 로고
    • ch. xxxiv; C. C. G.,Tite, Impeachment and Parliamentary Judicature in Early Stuart England (London, 1974), chs. IV-V;
    • S. R. Gardiner, History of England… 1603–42 (10 vols., 1884–1891), ch. xxxiv; C. C. G.,Tite, Impeachment and Parliamentary Judicature in Early Stuart England (London, 1974), chs. IV-V;
    • (1884) History of England… 1603–42 , vol.10
    • Gardiner, S.R.1
  • 54
    • 84976032006 scopus 로고
    • 3 vols Roger North, Life of Lord Guildford London ed. A. Jessop para. 347
    • The Lives of the Norths, ed. A. Jessop (3 vols., London, 1890), vol. I; Roger North, Life of Lord Guildford, pp. 297–298, para. 347.
    • (1890) The Lives of the Norths , vol.I , pp. 297-298
  • 55
    • 84976073061 scopus 로고
    • The Private Diary of William
    • ed. E. C. Hawtrey (Roxburghe Club
    • The Private Diary of William, first Earl Cowper, Lord Chancellor of England, ed. E. C. Hawtrey (Roxburghe Club, No. 49, 1833), pp. 29–30;
    • (1833) first Earl Cowper, Lord Chancellor of England , Issue.49 , pp. 29-30
  • 58
    • 84976150459 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 510, 660
    • Commons Journals, XXI, 1727–1732, pp. 510, 660;
    • Commons Journals , vol.XXI , pp. 1727-1732
  • 59
    • 84976032030 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • not printed in the Journals ‘Lists of the Officers and their Deputies belonging to the Several Courts … With the … Tables of Fees….’
    • Votes of the House of Commons (not printed in the Journals), XI, 1730–1731, ‘Lists of the Officers and their Deputies belonging to the Several Courts … With the … Tables of Fees….’
    • Votes of the House of Commons , vol.XI , pp. 1730-1731
  • 61
    • 84976198271 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 807–9
    • Commons Journal, XXI, pp. 782, 807–9.
    • Commons Journal , vol.XXI , pp. 782
  • 62
    • 61949290106 scopus 로고
    • London et al. ‘St. Albans’; John Wade, The Black Book; Or, Corruption Unmasked’ (London, 1820), and The Extraordinary Black Book. A New Edition (London, 1832), shows a fixed charge of £640 per annum, although it was also part of Wade's argument that the profits of the Registrar's Office, as of other sections of Chancery, had increased enormously since the later eighteenth century
    • G. E. Cokayne et al., The Complete Peerage (14 vols., London, 1910–1959), ‘St. Albans’; John Wade, The Black Book; Or, Corruption Unmasked’ (London, 1820), and The Extraordinary Black Book. A New Edition (London, 1832), shows a fixed charge of £640 per annum, although it was also part of Wade's argument that the profits of the Registrar's Office, as of other sections of Chancery, had increased enormously since the later eighteenth century.
    • (1910) The Complete Peerage , vol.14
    • Cokayne, G.E.1
  • 63
    • 84976002849 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 895
    • Commons Journals, XXI, pp. 892–894, 895.
    • Commons Journals , vol.XXI , pp. 892-894
  • 65
    • 84975976796 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • There do not seem to have been any general orders comparable to these since Clarendon's in 1661.
    • Sanders, Orders of Chancery, I, pp. 599–619. There do not seem to have been any general orders comparable to these since Clarendon's in 1661.
    • Orders of Chancery , vol.I , pp. 599-619
    • Sanders1
  • 66
    • 84976002832 scopus 로고
    • At War with the Smugglers
    • London and D.N.B., art. ‘Thomas Arnold’
    • F. D. Arnold-Forster, At War with the Smugglers. Career of Doctor Arnold's Father (London, 1936), and D.N.B., art. ‘Thomas Arnold’.
    • (1936) Career of Doctor Arnold's Father
    • Arnold-Forster, F.D.1
  • 68
    • 0009304747 scopus 로고
    • London nothing like as damning as L. Chapman, Your Disobedient Servant (London, 1978, and pbk. edn., Harmondsworth, 1979)
    • C. K. Munro, The Fountains in Trafalgar Square: Some Reflections on the Civil Service (London, 1952)—nothing like as damning as L. Chapman, Your Disobedient Servant (London, 1978, and pbk. edn., Harmondsworth, 1979).
    • (1952) The Fountains in Trafalgar Square: Some Reflections on the Civil Service
    • Munro, C.K.1
  • 71
    • 84976112556 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ed. R. C. Latham and W. Matthews (London, 1971)
    • The Diary of Samuel Pepys, vol. V, 1664, ed. R. C. Latham and W. Matthews (London, 1971), pp. 68–9.
    • The Diary of Samuel Pepys , vol.V , Issue.1664 , pp. 68-69
  • 72
    • 84976073217 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ed. C. Whitworth London, 1771, repr. Farnborough, 1967), Vol. I, ‘Discourses on the Public Revenue’ (1698), Part I, Disc, iii, pp. 168–206, ‘On the Management of the King's Revenue’, esp. pp. 177, 183, 201–2, and Disc, iv, pp. 207–31, ‘Whether to farm the Revenues, may not in this juncture, be most for the Public Service.’
    • The Political and Commercial Works of… Charles D'Avenant … ed. C. Whitworth (5 vols., London, 1771, repr. Farnborough, 1967), Vol. I, ‘Discourses on the Public Revenue’ (1698), Part I, Disc, iii, pp. 168–206, ‘On the Management of the King's Revenue’, esp. pp. 177, 183, 201–2, and Disc, iv, pp. 207–31, ‘Whether to farm the Revenues, may not in this juncture, be most for the Public Service.’
    • The Political and Commercial Works of… Charles D'Avenant , vol.5
  • 78
    • 84976201954 scopus 로고
    • London See Part 2, esp. ch. 5; Speck, Stability and Strife, chs. 1
    • See H. T. Dickinson, Liberty and Property (London, 1976), Part 2, esp. ch. 5; Speck, Stability and Strife, chs. 1, 6–12.
    • (1976) Liberty and Property , pp. 6-12
    • Dickinson, H.T.1
  • 79
    • 84975976793 scopus 로고
    • Cambridge Although even here there had been economies since the early seventeenth century: see esp.
    • Although even here there had been economies since the early seventeenth century: see J. M. Beattie, The English Court in the Reign of George I (Cambridge, 1967). esp. pp. 17–19.
    • (1967) The English Court in the Reign of George , vol.I , pp. 17-19
    • Beattie, J.M.1


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