Revolutionary Exhumations in Spain, July 1936

Comparative Studies in Society and History

Volumn 27, Issue 2, 1985, Pages 241-260

  Lincoln, Bruce ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA   (United States)

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EID: 84976040817     PISSN: 00104175     EISSN: 14752999     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0010417500011348     Document Type: Article

References (31)

1. See Montero Moreno, Historia de la persecución, 64 n. 36, 431 n. 3; A. de Castro Albarran, La gran victima: La Iglesia Espańola martir de la revolución roja (Salamanca: n. p., 1940), 159—60; [Juan Estelrich], La persécution religieuse en Espagne (Paris: Plon, 1937), 39, and photos following pp. 80, 104.
2. It is worth noting that the act of defining certain others as less than human is a necessary step in the process of rendering their killing licit, as was observed by Simone Weil in her celebrated letter to Georges Bernanos (with reference to the atrocities perpetrated by the Left in Catalonia, which she witnessed during the first months of the civil war). Text available in translation in Murray A. Sperber, ed., And I Remember Spain (New York: Collier, 1974), 259–63, esp. 262.
3. For critiques of the use of the crusade theme as propaganda, see Juan de Iturralde, El Catolicismo v la cruzada de Franco, 3 vols. (Bayonne: Editorial Egi-Indarra, 1956-65); and Herbert R. Southworth, El mito de la cruzada de Franco (Paris: Ruedo Ibérico, 1963), esp. 175-80.
4. See Joan Connelly Ullman, The Tragic Week: A Study of Anti-Clericalism in Spain, 1875–1912 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 1968). esp. 227, 231, 246–47, 253.
5. Bruce Lincoln, “Notes toward a Theory of Religion and Revolution.” in Religion, Rebellion, Revolution: An Interdisciplinary and Cross-Cultural Collection of Essays, B. Lincoln, ed. (London: Macmillan, 1985). 266–92.
6. See the literature cited in note 9, especially the analysis of Brenan, Spanish Labyrinth, 43–55.
7. Peers, Spain, Church, and Orders, 68, 158.
8. On rumor as the metaphoric articulation of latent popular sentiment, see Peter Lienhardt, “The Interpretation of Rumour, ” in Studies in Social Anthropology: Essays in Memory of E. E. Evans-Pritchard, J. H. M. Beattie and R. G. Lienhardt, eds. (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1975), 105–31, esp. 128–31.
9. Lincoln, “Notes toward a Theory of Religion and Revolution.”
10. For the best account of the Church's role in the years 1931–36, see Sanchéz, Reform and Reaction, 65–213. Highly misleading are the presentations of Peers, Spain, Church, and Orders, and U. Massimo Miozzi, Storia della Chiesa Spagnola (1931–1966) (Rome: Instituto Editoriale del Mediterraneo, 1967).
11. Only recently has serious attention been focused on the Right in the years leading up to the civil war. See Richard A. H. Robinson, The Origins of Franco's Spain (Newton Abbot: David and Charles, 1970); Martin Blinkhorn, Carlism and Crisis in Spain (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975), the latter having particular emphasis on the role of religion.
12. On the Aghorins (or Aghoris, as he transcribed the term), see Mircea Eliade, Yoga: Immortality and Freedom (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969), 296-301; or. more recent, Jonathan Parry, “Sacrificial Death and the Necrophagous Ascetic, ” Death and the Regeneration of Life, M. Bloch and J. Parry, eds. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 74–110, esp. 86–101.
13. A new and most interesting interpretation of the Hamatsa has recently been offered by Stanley Walens, Feasting with Cannibals: An Essay on Kwakiutl Cosmology (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981), esp. 138–63. See also the classic accounts in Franz Boas, Kwakiutl Ethnography, Helen Codere, ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), 171-279; and Ruth Benedict, Patterns of Culture (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1959), 177–81.
14. Peter Worsley, The Trumpet Shall Sound: A Study of “Cargo” Cults in Melanesia, 2d ed. (New York: Schocken, 1968), 250.
15. Kenelm Burridge, New Heaven, New Earth (New York: Schocken, 1969), esp. 166–68.
16. The best treatment of these oaths is Robert Buijtenhuijs, Le mouvement “Mau-Mau” (The Hague: Mouton, 1971), 255–98.
17. Kareri Njama, Mau Mau from Within, 121, cited in Buijtenhuijs, Le mouvement “Mau-Mau 260.
18. Max Gluckman, “The Magic of Despair, ” in his Order and Rebellion in Tribal Africa (New York: Free Press, 1963), 137–145. In many ways, however, Gluckman's analysis must now be replaced by that of Buijtenhuijs.
19. Dio Cassius 37.30.3; Plutarch, Cicero 10.3. Sallust, Bellum Catilinae 22, recounts the same story, but expresses skepticism as to whether it is true or merely propaganda directed against Catiline by his enemies, chiefly Cicero.
20. Bernard Lewis, The Assassins: A Radical Sect in Islam (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1967), 73. On the festival of the Qiyāma, see also Marshall G. S. Hodgson, The Order of Assassins (The Hague: Mouton, 1955), 148–58.
21. Cited in Christopher Dawson, The Gods of Revolution New York: Minerva, 1975), 80. Emphasis added.
22. The best general work on the campaign of dechristianization is Michel Vovelle, Religion et révolution: la déchristianisation de l'an 11 (Paris: Hachette, 1976), which is, however, largely a statistical and demographic study and not a dramaturgical one. For the dechristianization spectacles, see Mona Ozouf, La féte révolutionnaire 1789–1799 (Paris: Gallimard, 1976), 99–124 et passim.
23. On the iconoclasm of the English civil war, see John Ransome Phillips, The Reformation of Images: Destruction of Art in England, 1535–1660 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973); on that of the Taiping Rebellion, Vincent Y. C. Shih, The Taiping Ideology (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1967), 23–29.
24. See the discussion of Venetia Newall, “Icons as Symbols of Power, ” in Symbols of Power, Hilda Ellis-Davidson, ed. (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1977), 61–99.
25. See, for instance, the final section of Montero Moreno's Historia de la Persecución, 627–53, devoted to incidents of iconoclasm and entitled “El martirio de las cosas” [The martyrdom of things]. One of the most effective pieces of Nationalist propaganda is devoted entirely to photos of heavily damaged religious art: Manuel Augusto, Via crucis del Seńor en tierras de Espańa (Barcelona: Editora Nacional, 1939).
26. Bayle, Qué pasa en Espana?, 53.
27. See, for instance, Castro Albarran, La gran victima, 159-61; [Estelrich], La persécution religieuse, 39. Along similar lines, speaking of the revolutionary iconoclasm in general, Montero Moreno, Historia de la persecución, 649, calls it a “diabólico o nietscheano asesinato de Dios.”
28. See Montero Moreno, Historia de la persecución, 64 (note in paticular the cases of the Carmelite Church and Capuchin Convent in Madrid, The Franciscan Convent in Berga and that at Fuenteovejuna), and 432 (note the cases of the Salesian Convent and the Minimás de Jesus Maria in Barcelona).
29. See Ullman, Tragic Week, 201, 227, 246–47, 253, 276–77, et passim.
30. Low and Brea, Red Spanish Notebook, 215.
31. Fyodor Dostoevsky, The Brothers Karamozov, Part 3, Book 7, Section 1, “The Breath of Corruption.”