Nationalism and anti-ethno-politics: why ‘Chinese Development’ failed at Myanmar’s Myitsone Dam

Eurasian Geography and Economics

Volumn 57, Issue 3, 2016, Pages 374-402

  Kiik, Laur ^a  

^a TALLINN UNIVERSITY   (Estonia)

Author keywords

anti politics; ethnography; Kachin; nationalism; state centrism; Going Out

Indexed keywords

DAM CONSTRUCTION; ETHNOGRAPHY; ETHNOPOLITICS; GEOPOLITICS; MILITARY INTERVENTION; NATIONALISM; POLITICAL IDEOLOGY; POLITICAL RELATIONS;

CHINA; KACHIN; MYANMAR;

EID: 84975479149     PISSN: 15387216     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/15387216.2016.1198265     Document Type: Article

References (77)

1. AKSYU (All Kachin Students & Youth Union). 2008. Blood Jade:Burmese Gemstones & the Beijing Games. August 6. http://www.kdng.org/blood-jade-the-burmese-gemstones-beijing-games/.
2. Anonymous. 2012a. We All Love the Ayeyarwady:Case Study on the Myitsone Dam Advocacy Campaign (Myanmar/Burma). Unpublished report.
3. Anonymous. 2012b. “Chronology of the Myitsone Dam at the Confluence of Rivers above Myitkyina and Map of Kachin State Dams.” Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs 31:141–153.
4. CGA (Crisis Group Asia). 2009. “Report N°177, China’s Myanmar Dilemma.” September 14. http://www.crisisgroup.org/en/regions/asia/north-east-asia/china/177-chinas-myanmar-dilemma.aspx.
5. China Daily. 2011. “CPI:Mutually Beneficial and Double Winning China-Myanmar Myitsone Hydropower Project.” October 3. http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2011-10/03/content_13835493.htm.
6. CISPDR (Changjiang Institute of Survey, Planning, Design and Research). 2010. Environmental Impact Report of Hydropower Development in Upper Reaches of Ayeyawady River. September 28. http://www.uachc.com/Liems/esite/content/showDetail.jsp?nid=6897&newtype_no=2248.
7. K.Dean, Karin. 2007. “Mapping the Kachin Political Landscape:Constructing, Contesting and Crossing Borders.” In Exploring Ethnic Diversity in Burma, edited by M.GraversMikael, 123–148. Copenhagen:NIAS Press.
8. K.Dean, Karin. 2011. “Spaces, Territorialities and Ethnography on the Thai-, Sino- and Indo-Myanmar Boundaries.” In Ashgate Research Companion to Border Studies, edited by D.Wastl-WalterDoris, 219–242. Farnham:Ashgate Publishing.
9. ERI (EarthRights International). 2010. Broken Ethics:The Norwegian Government’s Investments in Oil and Gas Companies Operating in Burma (Myanmar). Accessed March 4, 2016. http://www.earthrights.org/sites/default/files/documents/Broken-Ethics.pdf
10. ERI (EarthRights International). 2011. The Burma-China Pipelines:Human Rights Violations, Applicable Law, and Revenue Secrecy. Accessed April 2, 2016. http://www.earthrights.org/sites/default/files/documents/the-burma-china-pipelines.pdf
11. H.Fan, Hongwei. 2014. “Enmity in Myanmar against China.” ISEAS Perspective 2014/08, February 17. https://www.iseas.edu.sg/images/pdf/ISEAS_Perspective_2014_08.pdf.
12. J.Ferguson, James. 1994. The Anti-Politics Machine:“Development”, Depoliticization, and Bureaucratic Power in Lesotho. Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press.
13. D.Gladney, Dru. 1994. “Representing Nationality in China:Refiguring Majority/Minority Identities.” The Journal of Asian Studies 53:92–123.10.2307/2059528
14. Global Witness. 2003. A Conflict of Interests:The Uncertain Future of Burma’s Forests. October 7. www.globalwitness.org/library/conflict-interest-english.
15. Global Witness. 2005. A Choice for China:Ending the Destruction of Burma’s Northern Frontier Forests. October 1. www.globalwitness.org/library/choice-china-ending-destruction-burmas-frontier-forests.
16. Global Witness. 2009. A Disharmonious Trade:China and the Continued Destruction of Burma’s Northern Frontier Forests. October 21. www.globalwitness.org/library/disharmonious-trade-china-and-continued-destruction-burmas-northern-frontier-forests.
17. Global Witness. 2015. Jade:Myanmar’s Big State Secret. October 23. https://www.globalwitness.org/en-gb/campaigns/oil-gas-and-mining/myanmarjade.
18. R.Gonzalez-Vicente, Ruben. 2011. “The Internationalization of the Chinese State.” Political Geography 30:402–411.10.1016/j.polgeo.2011.09.001
19. R.Gonzalez-Vicente, Ruben. 2012. “Mapping Chinese Mining Investment in Latin America:Politics or Market?” The China Quarterly 209:35–58.10.1017/S0305741011001470
20. C.Grundy-Warr, Carl, and K.DeanKarin. 2011. “Not Peace, Not War:The Myriad Spaces of Sovereignty, Peace and Conflict in Myanmar/Burma.” In Reconstructing Conflict:Integrating War and Post-War Geographies, edited by S.KirschScott and C.FlintColin, 91–114. Farnham:Ashgate Publishing.
21. A.Higgins, Andrew. 2011. “Chinese-Funded Hydropower Project Sparks Anger in Burma.” The Washington Post, December 28. http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/chinese-funded-hydropower-project-sparks-anger-in-burma/2011/10/17/gIQAGYFfxM_story.html.
22. T.-P.Ho, Ts’Ui-P’Ing. Forthcoming. “Dancing Diplomacy:Cross-Border Recognition at Manau Dance Festivals.” In War and Peace in the Borderlands of Myanmar:The Kachin Ceasefire 1994–2011, edited by M.SadanMandy. Copenhagen:NIAS Press.
23. J.Holslag, Jonathan. 2011. “China and the Coups:Coping with Political Instability in Africa.” African Affairs 110:367–386.10.1093/afraf/adr022
24. Images Asia and PKDS (Pan Kachin Development Society). 2004. At What Price?:Gold Mining in Kachin State, Burma. Accessed March 1, 2016. www.ibiblio.org/obl/docs/gold%20pdf1.pdf.
25. International Rivers. 2015. Benchmarking the Policies and Practices of International Hydropower Companies – Part B:Benchmarking Findings Summary by Company. June 22. https://www.internationalrivers.org/resources/9065.
26. KDNG (Kachin Development Networking Group). 2007a. Damming the Irrawaddy. October 6. http://www.kdng.org/damming-the-irrawaddy.
27. KDNG (Kachin Development Networking Group). 2007b. Valley of Darkness:Gold Mining and Militarization in Burma’s Hugawng Valley. January 6. www.kdng.org/valley-of-darkness-gold-mining-and-militarization-in-burmas-hugawng-valley.
28. KDNG (Kachin Development Networking Group). 2009a. Resisting the Flood:Communities Taking a Stand against the Imminent Construction of Irrawaddy Dams. October 3. http://www.kdng.org/resisting-the-flood-2.
29. KDNG (Kachin Development Networking Group). 2009b. Heroin Epidemic in Hpakant. June 3. http://www.kdng.org/heroin-epidemic-in-hpakant.
30. KDNG (Kachin Development Networking Group). 2010. Tyrants, Tycoons and Tigers. Yuzana Company Ravages Burma’s Hugawng Valley. August 3. http://www.kdng.org/tyrants-tycoons-and-tigers.
31. L.Kiik, Laur. Forthcoming. “Conspiracy, God’s Plan, and National Emergency:Kachin Popular Analyses of the Ceasefire Era and Its Resource Grabs.” In War and Peace in the Borderlands of Myanmar:The Kachin Ceasefire 1994–2011, edited by S.MandySadan. Copenhagen:NIAS Press.
32. KIO (Kachin Independence Organization). 2011. “Mali Nmai Confluence Dam Project.” Open Letter to “Chairman, Communist Party of China, People’s Republic of China.” March 16. http://www.burmalibrary.org/docs11/KIO-Letter_to_China-red.pdf.
33. J.Kirchherr, Julian, K.J.CharlesKatrina J., and M.J.WaltonMatthew J. 2016. “The Interplay of Activists and Dam Developers:The Case of Myanmar’s Mega-Dams.” International Journal of Water Resources Development. May 12.
34. J.Kirchherr, Julian, T.DisselhoffTim, and K.CharlesKatrina. 2016. “Safeguards, Financing, and Employment in Chinese Infrastructure Projects in Africa:The Case of Ghana’s Bui Dam.” Waterlines 35:37–58.10.3362/1756-3488.2016.005
35. T.Kramer, Tom, and K.WoodsKevin. 2012. Financing Dispossession:China’s Opium Substitution Programme in Northern Burma. Amsterdam:Transnational Institute Drugs & Democracy Programme. http://www.tni.org/sites/www.tni.org/files/download/tni-financingdispossesion-web.pdf.
36. E.R.Leach, Edmund R. 1954. Political Systems of Highland Burma:A Study of Kachin Social Structure. London:Athlone.
37. J.Li, Jing. 2013. “Western-Funded Green Groups ‘Stir up Trouble’ in China.” South China Morning Post, August 23. http://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/1298716/western-funded-green-groups-stir-trouble-china.
38. L.Li, Li. 2013. “Miandian Cheng Xifang NGO Tiantang Shandong Minzhong Xinao Jingying (Myanmar Becomes Heaven for Western NGOs, Inflaming the Public and Brainwashing the Elite).” Ta Kung Pao, July 25. http://news.takungpao.com/opinion/highlights/2013-07/1787065.html. Translated and re-published at the UACHC website.
39. X.Li, Xinmin. 2013. “Qiujie Misong Kunju (Investigating the Myitsone Predicament).” Jingji Cankao Bao (Economic Information Daily), September 2. http://dz.jjckb.cn/www/pages./webpage2009/html/2013-09/02/content_79157.htm?div=-1. Translated and re-published at the UACHC website.
40. R.Liao, Ruo. 2011. “Lessons from the Irrawaddy.” Chinadialogue.net, October 10. https://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/4574-Lessons-from-the-Irrawaddy.
41. B.Lintner, Bertil. 1997. The Kachin:Lords of Burma’s Northern Frontier. Asia Film House Pty Ltd under License from Sollo Development Limited in conjunction with Robroy Management Pty Ltd and the Lua Publishing Services Partnership. Chiang Mai:Teak House.
42. B.Lintner, Bertil. 2011a. “China behind Myanmar’s Course Shift.” Asia times, October 19. www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/MJ19Ae03.html.
43. B.Lintner, Bertil. 2011b. “Burma Rebuffs China.” Khaleej times Online, October 7. http://www.khaleejtimes.com/article/20111007/ARTICLE/310079874/1098.
44. B.Lintner, Bertil. 2012. “Burma:Trouble Brewing for China.” YaleGlobal, November 5. http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/burma-trouble-brewing-china.
45. R.A.Litzinger, Ralph A. 2000. Other Chinas:The Yao and the Politics of National Belonging. Durham, NC:Duke University Press.
46. K.N.McDonald, Kristen Nicole. 2007. “Damming China’s Grand Canyon:Pluralization without Democratization in the Nu River Valley.” Unpublished PhD diss., University of California, Berkeley.
47. K.McDonald, Kristen, P.BosshardPeter, and N.BrewerNicole. 2009. “Exporting Dams:China’s Hydropower Industry Goes Global.” Journal of Environmental Management 90:S294–S302.10.1016/j.jenvman.2008.07.023
48. Z.MinZin. 2012. “Burmese Attitude toward Chinese:Portrayal of the Chinese in Contemporary Cultural and Media Works.” Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs 31:115–131.
49. P.Moody, Peter. 2001. “The Anti-Political Tendency in Contemporary Chinese Political Thinking.” In Chinese Political Culture, 1989–2000, edited by S.HuaShiping, 161–187. New York:M.E. Sharpe.
50. P.R.Moody, Peter R. 2007. “Chapter 4:The Antipolitical Tendency.” In Conservative Thought in Contemporary China, 57–80. Lanham:Lexington Books.
51. E.Mueggler, Erik. 2002. “Dancing Fools:Politics of Culture and Place in a ‘Traditional Nationality Festival’.” Modern China 28:3–38.10.1177/009770040202800101
52. P.Nyíri, Pál. 2006. “The Yellow Man’s Burden:Chinese Migrants on a Civilizing Mission.” The China Journal 56:83–106.10.2307/20066187
53. May Sit Paing. 2014. “Thein Sein Violated the Official Contract.” The Irrawaddy Magazine, March 11. http://www.irrawaddy.org/interview/thein-sein-violated-official-contract.html.
54. C.PavinChachavalpongpun. 2012. “The Vexing Strategic Tug-of-War over Naypyidaw:ASEAN’s View of the Sino-Burmese Ties.” Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs 31:97–114.
55. J.H.Ping, Jonathan H. 2013. “China’s Relations with India’s Neighbours:From Threat Avoidance to Alternative Development Opportunity.” Asian Journal of Political Science 21:21–40.10.1080/02185377.2013.793559
56. PKDS (Pan Kachin Development Society) and KESAN (Karen Environmental and Social Action Network). 2004. Destruction and Degradation of the Burmese Frontier Forests:Listening to the People’s Voices. Accessed February 1, 2016. www.kesan.asia/Resources/logging.pdf
57. Project Maje. 2011a. The North War:A Kachin Conflict Compiled Report. http://www.projectmaje.org/kachin_2011.htm.
58. Project Maje. 2011b. The North War, Part II:Kachin Conflict Continues. http://www.projectmaje.org/north_war_dec_2011.htm.
59. Project Maje. 2013. Air War in Kachinland:Burma Military Air Attacks on Kachin Territory. December 4, 2012–January 18, 2013. http://www.projectmaje.org/airwar.htm.
60. H.Qin, Hui. 2012. “Behind Myanmar’s Suspended Dam.” Translated by F.RoddyFlagg. Original article in The Economic Observer; translation at Chinadialogue.net. March 28. Parts 1, 2 & 3:http://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/4832; http://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/4837; http://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/4838.
61. B.Ren, Bing, H.LiangHao, and Y.ZhengYing. 2010. “Chinese Multinationals’ Outward Foreign Direct Investment:An Institutional Perspective and the Role of the State.” Paper presented at the 4th China Goes Global Conference, Harvard University, April 26. http://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=1603763.
62. M.Sadan, Mandy. 2007. “Decolonizing Kachin:Ethnic Diversity and the Making of an Ethnic Category.” In Exploring Ethnic Diversity in Burma, edited by M.GraversMikael, 34–76. Copenhagen:NIAS Press.
63. M.Sadan, Mandy. 2013. Being and Becoming Kachin. Oxford:Oxford University Press and the British Academy.10.5871/bacad/9780197265550.001.0001
64. M.Sadan, Mandy, and F.RobinneFrancois, eds. 2007. Social Dynamics in the Highlands of Southeast Asia:Reconsidering Political Systems of Highland Burma by E. R. Leach. Leiden:Brill.
65. M.SapaiMin. 2012. “Impacts of Wildlife Trade on Conservation in Kachin State, Myanmar.” TRAFFIC Bulletin 24:57–76.
66. SASAC (State-owned Assets Supervision and Administration Commission of the State Council, PRC). 2011. Zhongyang qiye chuang xian zheng you huodong jian bao, di 82 qi, Zhongdian Toujituan Yijiang xiangmu chuangxin haiwai dangjian moshi wei “zouchuqu” zhanlüe tigong jianqiang baozheng (the Innovative Mode of Overseas Party Construction by China Power Investment Corporation’s Irrawaddy River Project Ensured a Strong Guarantee for the “Go out” Strategy). August 18. http://www.sasac.gov.cn/n1180/n6881559/n10281420/n10282125/n10282230/13768474.html.
67. L.Schein, Louisa. 2000. Minority Rules:The Miao and the Feminine in China’s Cultural Politics. Durham, NC:Duke University Press.
68. SGM (Shwe Gas Movement). 2011. Sold out:Launch of China Pipeline Project Unleashes Abuse across Burma. September 5. http://www.shwe.org/sold-out-new-report.
69. Sinohydro. 2011. “Aozhan Mizhina (Fierce Fighting Myitkyina).” Promotional film. http://vimeo.com/33389414.
70. Y.Sun, Yun. 2012. “China’s Strategic Misjudgement on Myanmar.” Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs 31:73–96.
71. Ta Kung Pao. 2013. “Xifang shihuai zhi Miandian shuidian xiangmu gezhi, Zhongqi sunshi 3 yi (Western Tricks Lead to the Shelving of the Hydropower Project in Myanmar and an Annual Loss of RMB 300 Million for the Chinese Company).”August 9. http://news.takungpao.com/world/exclusive/2013-08/1818355.html. Translated and re-published at the UACHC website.
72. UACHC (Upstream Ayeyawady Confluence Basin Hydropower Co., Ltd.). 2011. Introduction of Seismic Safety Study of Upstream Ayeyawady Hydropower Projects. December 30. Study published on the UACHC website. http://www.uachc.com/Liems/esiten/detail/detail.jsp?newsNo=7086.
73. Wikileaks. 2010. Cable 10RANGOON30. January 15. http://wikileaks.org/cable/2010/01/10RANGOON30.html.
74. E.Yeh, Emily. 2009. “Tibet and the Problem of Radical Reductionism.” Antipode 41:983–1010.10.1111/anti.2009.41.issue-5
75. E.Yeh, Emily and W.ElizabethWharton. 2016. “Going West and Going Out:Discourses, migrants, and Models in Chinese Development.” Eurasian Geography and Economics. This special issue.
76. B.Zhang, Boting. 2012. Shuibo:Response to Issues Raised by Kachin State Representative about Myitsone HPP. Text published on the UACHC website, January 17. http://www.uachc.com/Liems/esite/content/showDetail.jsp?nid=7119&newtype_no=2250.
77. J.Zuo, Janet. 2013. “Is Myitsone a Waterloo? An Anthropological Perspective on a Suspended Chinese Overseas Investment Project in Myanmar.” Unpublished MA thesis. School of Oriental and African Studies, London.