The foreign office and british propaganda during the first world war

The Historical Journal

Volumn 23, Issue 4, 1980, Pages 875-898

  Taylor, Philip M ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS   (United Kingdom)

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EID: 84974449978     PISSN: 0018246X     EISSN: 14695103     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0018246X00025115     Document Type: Article

References (121)

1. Northcliffe to C. J. Phillips, 12 July 1918. Cited in G. Harmsworth and R. Pound, Northcliffe (London, 1959), p. 653.
2. Lord Beaverbrook, Men and power, 1917-18 (London, 1956), p. 290.
3. A. J. P. Taylor, Beaverbrook (London, 1972), cited p. 145.
4. H. H. Asquith to the king, 31 Aug. 1914. Public Record Offfice, CAB 41/35/38.
5. H. O. Lee, 'British propaganda during the great war, 1914-18', PRO, INF 4/4A. The exact dates remain vague and even this document, the 'official' history written shortly after the war but before the papers relating to First World War propaganda were destroyed in 1920, fails to throw light on the early chronological developments. For a detailed study of the news department see Philip M. Taylor, '“The projection of Britain”; British overseas publicity and propaganda, 1914-39, with particular reference to the news department of the foreign office', Leeds University Ph.D. thesis, 1978.
6. For an excellent review of the numerous unofficial propaganda bodies see J. D. Squires, British propaganda at home and in the United States from 1974 to 1917 (Cambridge, Mass. 1935), pp. 16-25.
7. The work of the Press Bureau has been described by Sir Edward Cook in his The press in wartime (London, 1920) but awaits a modern study.
8. G. H. Mair, 'Report on [the] propaganda of [the] Neutral Press Organisation', undated. PRO, FO 371 / 2555, 12467: memorandum by J. A. Simon, ' The Neutral Press Committee 8 Oct. 1915. CAB 37/135/14.
9. ‘The activities of Wellington House during the great war', undated, unsigned. INF 4/1B.
10. Lee, 'British propaganda during the great war, 1914-18', INF 4/4A.
11. For a more detailed examination of the work of Wellington House see M. L. Sanders, 'Wellington House and British propaganda during the First World War', Historical Journal, xviii, (1975), 119-46.
12. Unsigned memorandum on the news department, 29 Jan. 1915. FO 371/2555, 12467.
13. One official observed in 1914: 'The contumely with which the German propaganda has been visited shows very clearly that Americans would dislike any kind of machinery for the manipulation of their public opinion.' A. Willert to G. Robinson, 20 Nov. 1914. Willert MSS, T[he] T[imes] A[rchive].
14. Foreign Office memorandum, 'British propaganda in allied and neutral countries', 20 Dec. 1916. CAB 24/3, G. 102.
15. Ibid.
16. J. Tilley and S. Gaselee, The Foreign Office (London, 1933), pp. 279-83.
17. Robinson to Willert, 31 Dec. 1914. Willert MSS, T.T.A.
18. Unsigned memorandum, 27 Oct. 1914. FO 371/2555, 12467.
19. It was later noted that 'in the early days of propaganda, even Westminster was found to be too far from Fleet Street'. General notes on propaganda, undated, unsigned. INF 4/1B.
20. Cecil, then responsible for the news department's work in his capacity as parliamentary under-secretary of state for foreign affairs, had insisted that 'the Foreign Office could allow very considerable latitude to journalists, and would even go so far as to abandon any preliminary submission of matter connected with foreign policy at all'. Memorandum by J. A. Simon, 27 Oct.
21. CAB 37/136/3421 For further details see Rear Admiral Sir Douglas Brownrigg, Indiscretions of the naval censor (London, 1920), ch. iii.
22. Robert Donald: Editor, Daily Chronicle, 1904-18; appointed by Lloyd George to investigate British propaganda organization in 1917.
23. Donald to Lloyd George, 9 Jan. 1917. INF 4/4B.
24. A history of the work of M.I. 7, 1914-19. INF 4/1B.
25. Sir R. Brade to Foreign Office, 10 Dec. 1915. FO 371/2579, 188244.
26. Minute by Montgomery, 10 Dec. 1915. FO 371/2579, 188244.
27. Schuster to Montgomery, 13 Dec. 1915. FO 371/2579, 1909 27.
28. Schuster to Sir E. Troup, 13 Dec. 1915. FO 371/2579, 190927.
29. P. Knightley, The first casualty; the war correspondent as hero, propagandist and myth maker from the Crimea to Vietnam (London, 1975), pp. 80-112; Brig.-Gen. J. Charteris, At G.H.Q. (London, 1931), pp. 79, 94, 114-16; C. Hazlehurst, Politicians at war (London, 1971), pp. 147-51.
30. Brownrigg described Montgomery and Mair as resembling ' eager bridegrooms, ever pressing and coaxing me, the elusive bride, to grant them more and yet more favours in the shape of permits to visit the fleet'. Indiscretions of the naval censor, p. 79.
31. Schuster to Troup, 13 Dec. 1915. FO 371/2579, 1909 27.
32. This was, in fact, accurate. See Montgomery's proposals of 2 Oct. and 6 Dec. 1915. FO 371/2579, 190927.
33. Maurice de Bunsen to War Office, 14 Dec. 1915. FO 371/2579, 1909 27. 34 Ibid.
34. A history of the work of M.I. 7, 1914—19. INF 4/1B.
35. Report and proceedings of a standing sub-committee's enquiry regarding press and postal censorship in time of war, press censorship, 31 Jan. 1913. CAB 38/23/6. See also P. Towle, 'The debate on wartime censorship in Britain, 1902-1914' in B. Bond and I. Roy (eds.), War and society: a yearbook of military history (London, 1975).
36. Memorandum by Montgomery, 6 Dec. 1915, enclosed in Montgomery to S. W. Harris, 16 Dec. 1915. FO 371/2579, 200406.
37. Simon to Cecil, 20 Dec. 1915. FO 371/2579, 200406.
38. ibid.
39. Cecil to Simon, 22 Dec. 1915. FO 371/2579, 200406.
40. Ibid.
41. Samuel had succeeded Simon following the latter's resignation over the issue of conscription on New Year's Day 1916. It appears that he was more amenable than Simon on the transference of Mair to the Foreign Office. Cecil to Samuel, 21 Jan. 1916. FO 371/2835, 17981.
42. Lord Onslow had been permanent private secretary to Sir Edward Grey and Sir Arthur Nicolson, 1911-13, but was at this time a member of M.I. 7.
43. Record of proceedings of a conference at the Home Office, 26 Jan. 1916. INF 4/9.
44. Masterman to Cecil, 31 Jan. 1916. FO 371/2835, 20631.
45. Record of proceedings, 26 Jan. 1916, INF 4/9.
46. Memorandum by Cecil, 28 Jan. 1916. FO 371/2835, 17981.
47. E. T. Cook to Montgomery, 31 Jan. 1916; Montgomery to Cook, 1 Feb. 1916. FO 371/2835, 20630.
48. Masterman to Cecil, 31 Jan. 1916. FO 371/2835, 20631.
49. Montgomery to Masterman, 31 Jan. 1916. FO 371/2835, 20631.
50. Minutes by Cecil, 6 and 7 Feb. 1916. FO 371/2835, 21459.
51. Lord Newton, Retrospection (London, 1941), p. 218.
52. J. D. Squires, British propaganda, p. 33.
53. It is from this point that the administrative records of the news department begin, and for the remaining two and a half years of the war there exist about 250 volumes in the FO 395 series at the PRO.
54. War Office memorandum on press propaganda, 1 Feb. 1916. INF 4/9.
55. Ibid.
56. Charteris, At G.H.Q. diary entry for 22 July 1916. See also exchange of letters between Montgomery and Cockerill of 11 and 12 July 1916. FO 371/2835, 136247.
57. Charteris, diary entry for 2 Aug. 1916. Miles Lampson commenting upon the incredible and discreditable ' lack of public interest in war films, informed Charteris that ' all the people want to see is Charlie Chaplin'. Ibid. p. 166.
58. Ibid. diary for 19 Sept. 1916.
59. Lamson to Montgomery, 28 July 1916. FO 371/2835, 1849 95.
60. Minute by Montgomery, undated. FO 371/2835, 1849 95. See also the undated War Office memorandum enclosed in Macdonagh to Newton, 14 Sept. 1916, and Newton's reply (not sent) of 18 Sept. FO 371/2835, 193134.
61. CAB 23/1, 1(4). 9 Dec. 1916.
62. ‘British propaganda in allied and neutral countries; Admiralty notes on the use of the press in the United States of America', 20 Dec. 1916. CAB 24/3, G. 101.
63. ‘Note by the General Staff on the organisation of propaganda', 23 Dec. 1916. CAB 24/3, G. 103.
64. Foreign Office memorandum, 'British propaganda in allied and neutral countries', 20 Dec. 1916. CAB 24/3, G. 102.
65. Ibid.
66. Note by Cecil, 29 Dec. 1916. CAB 24/3, G. 102.
67. CAB 23/1, 43(7).
68. CAB 23/1 29(9). 2 Jan. 1917.
69. Lloyd George to Donald, 1 Jan. 1917. INF 4/4B.
70. Newton was also head of the prisoners of war department of the Foreign Office.
71. Donald to Lloyd George, 9 Jan. 1917. INF 4/4B.
72. Donald to C. P. Scott, 29 May 1917. INF 4/7.
73. CAB 23/1, 43(7). 24 Jan. 1917.
74. Note by Montgomery, 3 Feb. 1917. PRO, FO 800/384, Pp/17/2.
75. Drummond to Balfour, 3 Feb. 1917. FO 800/384, Pp/17/3; Drummond to Cecil (now minister for blockade), 4 Feb. 1917. FO 800/384, Pp/17/4.
76. Note by Balfour, undated. CAB 24/6, G.T. 2.
77. Note by J. Buchan, 'Propaganda - a department of information', 3 Feb. 1917. CAB 24/3, G. 128.
78. CAB 23/1, 75(13).
79. Donald to C. P. Scott, 29 May 1917, INF 4/7.
80. Lloyd George to Donald, 6 June 1917; Buchan to Donald, 6 June 1917. INF 4/4B.
81. Northcliffe, for example, wrote: 'We were in high hopes when Mr Buchan was created “Director of Information”, a sufficiently comprehensive tide. But Mr Buchan turns out to be virtually a subordinate of the Foreign Office where he works. His work, we are sure, is of the greatest national importance. The point is that it is merely that of an addition to the existing “publicity” departments, not that of a supreme co-ordinating centre.' The Times, 7 Aug. 1917.
82. CAB 24/3, 230(15). 10 Sept. 1917.
83. Beaverbrook, Men and power, p. 266.
84. Lloyd George to Donald, 19 Oct. 1917. INF 4/4B; H. A. Taylor, Robert Donald (London, undated), pp. 156-7.
85. Donald to Carson, 25 Oct. 1917. INF 4/4B.
86. Robert Donald, ' Inquiry into the extent and efficiency of propaganda: reports on various branches of propaganda work, and recommendations'. 4 Dec. 1917. INF 4/4B; CAB 27/18, PAC 3.
87. Burnham, Riddell, Beaverbrook and Donald to Sir Edward Carson, 14 Dec. 1917. INF 4/4B.
88. Buchan to Carson, 28 Dec. 1917. INF 4/5.
89. Memorandum sent to M. P. A. Hankey and covering note by Sir E. Carson, ' A psychological offensive against Germany', 11 Dec. 1917. CAB 24/35, G.T. 2941.
90. See the unsigned memorandum prepared by M.I. 9a entitled' German propaganda in 1917: some notes on its methods, material and manipulation'. INF 1/715.
91. Sir F. Clark, The central office of information (London, 1970), p. 23.
92. H. H. Asquith to the king, 31 Aug. 1914. CAB 41/35/38.
93. M. A. J. P. Taylor, Beaverbrook, p. 137.
94. R. Warman, ' The erosion of Foreign Office influence in the making offoreign policy, 1916-18', Historical Journal, xv, 1 (1972), 113-59.
95. Note by the intelligence department of the department of information, 4 Jan. 1918. CAB 24/38, G.T. 3226.
96. Report of the work of the department of propaganda in enemy countries, undated, unsigned. CAB 24/75, G.T. 6839.
97. Henry Wickham Steed: Foreign editor, The Times', appointed editor-in-chief, 1919-22.
98. Northcliffe to Balfour, 24 Feb. 1918. FO 889/4, No. 764.
99. For further details see Sir Campbell Stuart's Secrets of Crewe House: the story of a famous campaign (London, 1920), ch. iii.
100. Balfour to Lloyd George, 31 July 1918. FO 800/207.
101. K. J. Calder, Britain and the origins of the new Europe, 1914-18 (Cambridge, 1976), p. 177.
102. Beaverbrook to Lloyd George, 24 June 1918, enclosed in Northcliffe to Balfour, 7 July 1918. FO 800/212.
103. See, for example, Cecil's views on the subject cited in Taylor, Beaverbrook, pp. 148-9.
104. Memorandum by Balfour, 5 Feb. 1918. CAB 24/41, G.T. 3547.
105. Memorandum by Lord Beaverbrook, 'The need for an intelligence department of the ministry of information', 20 Feb. 1918. CAB 24/43, G.T. 3788.
106. Memorandum by Balfour, 28 Feb. 1918. CAB 24/43, G.T. 3788.
107. Foreign Office memorandum, undated, unsigned (but probably by Hardinge), enclosed in a memorandum by Balfour, 28 Feb. 1918. CAB 24/43, G.T. 3788.
108. CAB 23/5, 349(11), 29 Feb. 1918.
109. Minutes of a conference held in General Smuts' room, 5 Mar. 1918. CAB 24/44, G.T. 3823.
110. Minutes of a conference held in General Smuts' room, 13 Mar. 1918. CAB 24/45, G.T. 3942.
111. FO 366/787, 44472.
112. Enclosure in Balfour to First Lord of the Admiralty, 11 Apr. 1918. FO 800/207.
113. Beaverbrook to Balfour, 21 May 1918. FO 800/207.
114. Memorandum by E. Percy and A. E. Zimmern, 17 July 1918. FO 371/3474, 108951.
115. Report of the policy committee of the inter-allied conference on propaganda in enemy countries, enclosed in H. K. Hudson to M. P. A. Hankey, 21 Aug. 1918. CAB 24/61, G.T. 5492.
116. Schuster to Robinson, 3 Dec. 1914. INF 4/1B.
117. Enclosure in Schuster to Montgomery, 18 Dec. 1914. FO 371/2207, 88913.
118. H. O. Lee, 'British propaganda during the great war, 1914-1918'. INF 4/4A. m G. C. Bruntz, Allied propaganda and the collapse of the German empire in 1918 (New York, 1938), cited p. 8.
119. Taylor, Beaverbrook, p. 145.
120. Memorandum by Beaverbrook, 'The organisation and functions of the ministry of information', Sept. 1918. INF 4/5
121. Beaverbrook to Lloyd George, 24 June 1918. FO 800/212; also cited in F. Owen, Tempestuous journey (London, 1954), pp. 433-4.