Human nature, social engineering, and the reemergence of civil society

Social Philosophy and Policy

Volumn 8, Issue 1, 1990, Pages 159-179

  Rau, Zbigniew ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN   (United States)

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EID: 84972273921     PISSN: 02650525     EISSN: 14716437     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0265052500003794     Document Type: Article

References (57)

1. Ivan Szelenyi, “Socialist Opposition: Dilemmas and Prospects,” ed. Rudolf L. Tokes, Opposition in Eastern Europe (London: Macmillan, 1979), pp. 187–208; By civil society in this context, I mean various groups and movements which were established outside the structure and independent of the Soviet–type system. I will elaborate on this point in the last section of this essay. For different conceptual and ideological approaches to the phenomenon of the reemergence of civil society in Eastern Europe
2. Andrew Arato,” Civil Society Against the State: Poland 1980–81,” Telos, vol. 50 (1981), pp. 23–47;
3. Zbigniew Rau, “Some Thoughts on Civil Society in Eastern Europe and the Lockean Contractarian Approach,” Political Studies, XXV (1987), pp. 573–592;
4. Zbigniew A. Pelczynski, “Solidarity and ‘The Rebirth of Civil Society’ in Poland 1976–81,” ed. John Keane, Civil Society and the State (London: Verso, 1988), pp. 361–380
5. Gail W. Lapidus, “State and Society: Toward Emergence of Civil Society in Russia,” ed. Seweryn Bialer, Politics, Society, and Nationality inside Gorbachev's Russia (Westview Press: Boulder & London, 1989), pp. 121–147
6. John Gray, “Totalitarianism, Reform, and Civil Society,” ed. Ellen Frankel Paul, Totalitarianism at the Crossroads (New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1990)
7. Richard Sakwa, The State and Civil Society in the USSR (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, forthcoming). For a discussion of civil society as the force overcoming the Marxist–Leninist system
8. Zbigniew Rau, “Four stages of One Path Out of Socialism,’” in Totalitarianism at the Crossroads.
9. Leslie Stevenson, Seven Theories of Human Nature (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1974).
10. Graeme Duncan's “Political Theory and Human Nature,” ed. Ian Forbes and Steve Smith, Politics and Human Nature (London: Frances Printer, 1983), pp. 5–19.
11. Genesis 1:26.
12. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, ed. C.B. Macpherson (London: Penguin Books, 1968), ch. XIII.
13. Hobbes, Leviathan, ch. XVIII.
14. Karl Marx: Selected Writings in Sociology and Social Philosophy, ed. T.B. Bottomore (London: Penguin Books, 1963), p. 83.91 refer to Marx as the representative of these theories, since I will go on analyzing Marxism–Leninism as the theory of potential human nature which was implemented in political practice. Of course, Marx was not the only representative of such theories; Rousseau before him and Marcuse after also fit into this rubric.
15. Karl Marx: Selected Writings, p. 177.
16. Duncan's “Political Theory and Human Nature,” p. 15.1 extend his argument, substituting my own terminology (‘normative’, ‘analytical’, ‘empirical’) for his (‘moral’, ‘logical’, ‘sociological’).
17. Mikhail Heller, Cogs in the Wheel: The Formation of Soviet Man (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1988), p, 7. Heller's book offers the best possible introduction to this subject.
18. Leonard Schapiro, “Lenin's Intellectual Formation and the Russian Revolutionary Background,” in Russian Studies, ed. Ellen Dahrendorf (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1986), pp. 188–252.
19. Quoted in Schapiro, “Lenin's Intellectual Formation,” p. 196, Reglementation, a French term, means “strict regulation by system.”
20. Quoted in Schapiro, “Lenin's Intellectual Formation,” p. 241.
21. N. Bukharin and E. Preobrazhensky, The ABCs of Communism (Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1969), p. 113.
22. Nadezhda Krupskaia, Pedagogicheskie sochineniia v desati tomach. (Moscow, 1959), vol. VII, p. 12.
23. V.I. Lenin, State and Revolution (New York: International Publishers, 1932), p. 74.
24. V.I. Lenin, Selected Works (London: Lawrence & Wishart Ltd., 1946), vol. 9, p. 148.
25. In a now classic experiment, Pavlov trained a hungry dog to salivate at the sound of a bell, which had previously been associated with the sight of food. He developed a similar conceptual approach, emphasizing the importance of conditioning, in his pioneering studies relating human behavior to the nervous system. See Encyclopedia Britannica 1990, vol. 9, p. 215.
26. D. Jovorsky, “The Construction of the Stalinist Psyche,” ed. Sheila Fitzpatrick, Cultural Revolution in Russia,(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1984), pp. 105—128
27. Jovorsky, “The Construction of the Stalinist Psyche,” pp. 124–125.
28. Jozeph Brozek and D. Slobin, Psychology in the USSR: An Historical Perspective (New York: White Plains, 1972).
29. Jovorsky, The Construction of the Stalinist Psyche, This phrase originally stems from Bukharin's reply to Pavlov's criticism of Marxism in Krasnaia Nov (1924), 125, nos. 1 and 2, quoted
30. I.D. Sapir, Vysshaia nervnaia deiatel ‘nos cheloveka (Moscow, 1925), p. 156.
31. Jovorsky, “The Construction of the Stalinist Psyche,” p. 125.
32. Merle Faison, Smolensk under Soviet Rule (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1958). The files of the Party headquarters in Smolensk concerning the socioeconomic and political life of the Smolensk guberiya and Smolensk oblast from 1917 to 1938. During the Nazi occupation, German intelligence discovered the collection and brought it to Germany for examination. At the end of the war, it fell into American hands. For discussion of the collection's contents
33. Alexander Zinoviev, Homo Sovieticus (Boston, New York: The Atlantic Monthly Press, 1985), p. 197.
34. Alexander Zinoviev, The Reality of Communism (London: Victor Gollancz Ltd, 1984), p. 125.
35. Zinoviev, Homo Sovieticus, p. 11.
36. Zinoviev, The Reality of Communism, p. 129.
37. Czeslaw Milosz, Native Realm (London, Manchester: Sidgewick and Jackson/Carcanet New Press, 1981), p. 281.
38. Czeslaw Milosz, The Captive Mind (New York: Vintage Books, 1953), p. 6.
39. Czeslaw Milosz, The Captive Mind (New York: Vintage Books, 1953), p. 6, 12.
40. Czeslaw Milosz, The Captive Mind (New York: Vintage Books, 1953), p. 52.
41. Andrzej Walicki, Commenting on this issue, writes: “The Captive Mind. is a book about surrendering to ‘mental captivity’, not about defending oneself against it,”, “The ‘Captive Mind’ Revisited: Intellectuals and the Communist Totalitarianism in Poland,” in Totalitarians at the Crossroads, p. 67.
42. “The State of Enslavement: The East European Substitute for the State of Nature” forthcoming, in Political Studies. Much of the material in the following discussion is taken from my paper
43. Vaclav Havel, “The Power of the Powerless,” ed. John Keane, The Power of the Powerless: Citizens against the State in Central Europe (New York: M.E. Share Inc., 1985), p. 31.
44. Wlodzimierz Brus, ‘Normalization’ I owe this discussion to illuminating outline of the Soviet and East European economies in the 1960s and 1970s; see his Processes in Soviet–dominated Central Europe, Relative Stabilization of the Soviet Systems in the 1970s, ed. Zdenek Mlynar, Study No. 2 (Koln, 1983).
45. Miroslav Kusy, “On Civic Courage,” International Journal of Politics, vol. ix, 1 (Spring 1981), pp. 39–51. For a discussion of bravery and fear understood as psychological categories and courage and cowardice treated as moral categories, and their application in the analysis of the position of the individual in the Marxist–Leninist system
46. Havel, The Power of the Powerless, p. 31.
47. Milan Simecka, The Restoration of Order (London: Verso, 1984), p. 144.
48. Havel, The Power of the Powerless, p. 38.
49. Vaclav Cerny, “On the Question of Chartism,” in The Power of the Powerless: Citizens against the State in Central Europe, p. 131.
50. Havel, The Power of the Powerless, p. 45.
51. Havel, The Power of the Powerless, p. 100.
52. Milan Simecka, “Community of Fear,” International Journal of Politics, vol. ix, 1 (Spring 1981), p. 34.
53. Havel, The Power of the Powerless, pp. 44—45.
54. J. Benda, “Parallel Polis,” ed. H. Gordon Skilling, Charter 77 and Human Rights in Czechoslovakia (London: Allen & Unwin, 1981).
55. J. Tesar, “Totalitarian Dictatorships as a Phenomenon of the Twentieth Century and the Possibilities of Overcoming Them,” International Journal of Politics, vol. ix, 1 (Spring 1981), p. 99.
56. S.J. Trojan, “In Defense of Politics,” international Journal of Politics, vol. ix, 1 (Spring 1981), p. 73.
57. “He jest zdobyczy,” Polityka (February 10, 1990).