Anarchy and identity

International Organization

Volumn 49, Issue 2, 1995, Pages 229-252

  Mercer, Jonathan ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 84972211629     PISSN: 00208183     EISSN: 15315088     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0020818300028381     Document Type: Article

References (156)

1. The clearest neorealist statement is that of Kenneth Waltz in Theory of International Politics (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1979).
2. Also see Joseph Grieco, “Anarchy and the Limits of Cooperation: A Realist Critique of the Newest Liberal Institutionalism,” International Organization 42 (Summer 1988), pp. 485–507.
3. The constructivist position is clearly presented by Alexander Wendt, in “Anarchy is What States Make of It: The Social Construction of Power Politics,” International Organization 46 (Spring 1992), pp. 391-425; and.
4. Nicholas Onuf, World of Our Making: Rules and Rule in Social Theory and International Relations (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1989).
5. Wendt, “Anarchy is What States Make of It,” p. 400.
6. Wendt Theory of International Politics. 91.
7. Joseph M. Grieco, Cooperation Among Nations: Europe, America, and Non-tariff Barriers to Trade (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1990), p. 36.
8. See, for example, Ernst Haas, When Knowledge is Power (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990);.
9. Peter Haas, “Do Regimes Matter: Epistemic Community and Mediterranean Pollution Control,” International Organization 46 (Winter 1992), pp. 377-403;.
10. Friedrich Krato-chwil, Rules, Norms, and Decisions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989);.
11. Joseph Nye, “Nuclear Learning and U.S.-Soviet Security Regimes,” International Organization 41 (Summer 1987), pp. 371-402;.
12. Thomas Risse-Kappan, “Ideas Do Not Float Freely: Transnational Relations, Domestic Structures and the End of the Cold War,” International Organization 48 (Spring 1994), pp. 185-214; and.
13. John Gerard Ruggie, “International Regimes, Transactions, and Change: Embedded Liberalism in the Postwar Economic Order,” in Stephen D. Krasner, ed., International Regimes (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1983), pp. 195–231.
14. Mark Neufeld, “Interpretation and the ‘Science’ of International Relations,” Review of International Studies 19 January 1993), pp. 39–61. The quotations are from p. 60.
15. See Robert Keohane, After Hegemony (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1984).
16. For a discussion of the relative-absolute gains debate, see David Baldwin, ed., Neorealism and Neoliberalism: The Contemporary Debate (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993).
17. The debate over the “as if” assumption dates to Milton Friedman's “The Methodology of Positive Economics,” in his Essays in Positive Economics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953).
18. Waltz gives a good defense of the practice in Theory of International Politics, pp. 10 and 88–93.
19. For example, Dessler objects to Waltz's ontology because it does not allow, even in principle, for the system to be anything other than self-help. See David Dessler, “What's at Stake in the Agent-Structure Debate,” International Organization 43 (Summer 1989), pp. 441–73.
20. Susan Oyama, “Innate Selfishness, Innate Sociality,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 12 (December 1989), pp. 717–18. The quotation is from p. 717.
21. See Jack Snyder, Myths of Empire (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1991).
22. For further discussion, see William Wohlforth, “The End of the Cold War and Five Problems of International Theory,” in William Wohlforth, ed. Witness to the End of the Cold War (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, forthcoming).
23. Duncan Snidal, “International Cooperation Among Relative Gains Maximizers,” International Studies Quarterly 35 (December 1991), pp. 387–402 and pp. 400–401 in particular.
24. Waltz, Theory of International Politics, p. 71.
25. Wendt, “Anarchy is What States Make of It,” p. 401.
26. See John Darley, “Altruism and Prosocial Behavior Research: Reflections and Prospects,” in Margaret Clark, ed., Prosocial Behavior (London: Sage, 1991), p. 326 n.1;.
27. Ervin Staub, Positive Social Behavior and Morality (New York: Academic Press, 1978); and.
28. David Schroeder, Louis Penner, John Dovidio, and Jane Pilliavan, The Psychology of Helping and Altruism, McGraw-Hill Series in Social Psychology (New York: McGraw-Hill, forthcoming).
29. Wayne Sandholtz and John Zysman, “1992: Recasting the European Bargain,” World Politics 42 (October 1989), pp. 95–128.
30. Ann-Marie Le Gloannec, “The Implications of German Unification for Western Europe,” in Paul Stares, ed. The New Germany and the New Europe (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1992), pp. 251–78.
31. For tit-for-tat strategies, see Robert Axelrod, The Evolution of Cooperation (New York: Basic Books, 1984).
32. Robert Keohane discusses diffuse reciprocity in “Reciprocity in International Relations,” International Organization 40 (Winter 1986), pp. 1–27.
33. For an introduction and review of Robert Trivers's idea of reciprocal altruism, see Charles Taylor and Michael McGuire, “Reciprocal Altruism: Fifteen Years Later,” Ethology and Sociobiology 9 (July 1988), pp. 67–72.
34. The quotation is Bobbi Low's. See p. 14 of Bobbi Low, “An Evolutionary Perspective on War,” in William Zimmerman and Harold Jacobson, eds. Behavior, Culture, and Conflict in World Politics (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993), pp. 13–55.
35. Wendt, “Anarchy is What States Make of It,” pp. 401–2.
36. For a critique of harmony assumptions in international relations theory, ee E. H. Carr, The Twenty Years Crisis, 1919–1939 (New York : Harper and Row, 1964); and.
37. Kenneth Waltz, Man, The State, and War (New York: Columbia University Press, 1954).
38. Wendt, “Anarchy is What States Make of It,” p. 404.
39. George Herbert Mead, Mind, Self, and Society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1934), p. 326.
40. See also Sheldon Stryker, Symbolic Interactionism (Reading, Mass.: The Benjamin/ Cummings Publishing Co., 1980), pp. 37–38 and 62.
41. See Peter Berger, “Identity as a Problem in the Sociology of Knowledge,” Archives Europeennes de Sociologie, vol. 7, no. 1, 1966, pp. 105–15 and p. III in particular.
42. Mead notes that initial communication with Martians would be impossible. See Mind, Self, and Society, p. 257.
43. Stryker, Symbolic Interactionism, p. 62.
44. David Franks, “Notes on the Bodily Aspect of Emotions: A Controversial Issue in Symbolic Interaction,” Studies in Symbolic Interaction 8 (1987), pp. 219–33 and p. 220 in particular.
45. Borrowing from Adam Smith and David Hume, Mead viewed sympathy as critical to identifying with others. See Mead, Mind, Self, and Society, p. 366;.
46. Sheldon Stryker, “Symbolic Interactionism: Themes and Variations,” in Morris Rosenberg and Ralph Turner, eds., Social Psychology: Sociological Perspectives (New York: Basic Books, d, 1981), pp. 3–29 and p. 5 in particular; and.
47. Stryker, Symbolic Interactionism, pp. 19 and 62.
48. Because empathy is a relatively new word’for example, “empathetic” was not used until after Mead's death’it is not surprising that he did not use it in his writings. Staub notes that many writers consider role taking and empathy to be identical. See Staub, Positive Social Behavior and Morality, p. 44.
49. For a review, see C. Daniel Batson and Kathryn Oleson, “Current Status of the Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis,” in Clark, Prosocial Behavior, pp. 62–85.
50. See Muzafer Sherif and Carolyn Sherif, Groups in Harmony and Tension (New York : Harper, 1953); and.
51. Lewis Coser, The Function of Social Conflict (New York: Free Press, 1956).
52. Muzafer Sherif, Group Conflict and Cooperation: Their Social Psychology (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1966), p. 85.
53. See Lutfy Diab, “A Study of Intragroup and Intergroup Relations Among Experimentally Produced Small Groups,” Genetic Psychology Monographs 82 (August 1970), pp. 49-82; and.
54. Jacob Rabbie, “The Effects of Intergroup Competition and Cooperation on Intragroup and Intergroup Relationships,” in Valerian Derlega and Janusz Grzelak, eds., Cooperation and Helping Behavior-Theories and Research (New York: Academic Press, 1982), pp. 123-219 and p. 125 in particular.
55. Herbert Kelman, “Social-Psychological Approaches to the Study of International Relations,” in Herbert Kelman, ed., International Behavior: A Social-Psychological Analysis (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1966), pp. 3–39. The quotation is from p. 5.
56. Michael Hogg, “Group Cohesiveness: A Critical Review and Some New Directions,” in Wolfgang Stroebe and Miles Hewstone, eds., European Review of Social Psychology, vol. 4 (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1993), pp. 85–111 and p. 92 in particular.
57. For further discussion, see John Turner, Rediscovering the Social Group (New York: Basil Blackwell, 1987); and.
58. William Doise, Levels of Explanation in Social Psychology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986).
59. For a valuable discussion of methodological individualism and reductionism, see Danie Little, Varieties of Social Explanation (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1991), pp. 183–201.
60. For a spiritec structuralist critique of methodological individualism in social psychology and American sociology (including symbolic interactionism), see Bruce Mayhew, “Structuralism Versus Individualism: Par 1, Shadowboxing in the Dark,” Social Forces 59 (December 1980), pp. 335–75.
61. fortintroduction and further discussion, see Cookie White Stephan and Walter G.Stephan, eds., Two Social Psychologies, 2d ed. (Belmont, Calif. : Wadsworth, 1990); and Rosenberg and Turner, Social Psychology.
62. Michael Hogg and Dominic Abrams, Social Identifications: A Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations and Group Processes (New York: Routledge, 1988), p. 3.
63. Set Jonathan Mercer, Reputation and International Politics(Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press forthcoming).
64. Herbert Kelman, “The Question of Relevance,” in Kelman, International Behavior, pp 597–98.
65. For the first minimal-group experiment, see Henri Tajfel, “Experiments in Intergroup Discrimination,” Scientific American 223 (November 1970), 96–102.
66. Also see Michael Billig and Henri Tajfel, “Social Categorization and Similarity in Intergroup Behaviour,” European Journal of Social Psychology, vol. 3, no. 1, 1973, pp. 27–52.
67. Henri Tajfel and John C. Turner, “The Social Identity Theory of Intergroup Behavior,” Stephen Worchel and William G. Austin eds., Psychology of Intergroup Relations, 2d ed. (Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1986), pp. 7–24 and p. 14 in particular.
68. Ronald J. Fisher, The Social Psychology of Intergroup and International Conflict Resolution (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1990), p. 45.
69. Condor and Brown note that the preference for relative gains is reliable “even if this involves a forfeit in absolute ingroup gains.”.
70. See Susan Condor and Rupert Brown, “Psychological Processes in Intergroup Conflict,” in Wolfgang Stroebe, Arie W. Kruglanski, Daniel Bar-Tal, and Miles Hewstone, eds., The Social Psychology of Intergroup Conflict (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1988), pp. 3–26 and p. 10 in particular.
71. Hogg and Abrams, Social Identifications, pp. 49.
72. See Billig and Tajfel, “Social Categorization and Similarity in Intergroup Behaviour.”.
73. Tajfel and Turner, “The Social Identity Theory of Intergroup Behavior,” p. 15.
74. For the argument that these findings are artificial, see H. B. Gerard and M. F. Hoyt, “Distinctiveness of Social Categorization and Attitude Toward Ingroup Members,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 29 (June 1974), pp. 836–42.
75. For a response, see Henri Tajfel, “The Achievement of Group Differentiation,” in Henri Tajfel, ed., Differentiation Between Social Groups: Studies in the Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations (London: Academic Press, 1978), pp. 77–98.
76. James Sidanius, “The Psychology of Group Conflict and the Dynamics of Oppression,” in Shanto Iyengar and William McGuire, eds., Explorations in Political Psychology (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1993), pp. 183–219. The quotation is from p. 189.
77. See John W. Berry, Ype H. Poortinga, Marshall H. Segall, and Pierre R. Dasen, Cross-Cultural Psychology: Research and Applications (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 303–4.
78. Fletcher and Ward hold a similar view. See Garth Fletcher and Coleen Ward, “Attribution Theory and Processes: A Cross-Cultural Perspective,” in Michael Harris Bond, ed., The Cross-Cultural Challenge to Social Psychology (London: Sage, 1988), pp. 230–44.
79. Some have found that girls are more discriminatory than boys. For supporting evidence and citations, see Steve Hinkle and Rupert Brown, “Intergroup Comparisons and Social Identity,” in Dominic Abrams and Michael Hogg, eds., Social Identity Theory: Constructive and Critical Advances (New York: Springer-Verlag: 1990), pp. 48–70.
80. The quotation is from p. 59. Also see Rupert Brown and Amanda Smith, “Perceptions Of and By Minority Groups: The Case of Women in Academia,” European Journal of Social Psychology 19(January-February 1989), pp. 61–75.
81. Tajfel and Turner, “The Social Identity Theory of Intergroup Behaviour.” For reviews and critiques of SIT, see Fisher, The Social Psychology of Intergroup and International Conflict Resolution;.
82. Miles Hewstone, “Attributional Bases of Intergroup Conflict,” in Stroebe et al., The Social Psychology of Intergroup Conflict, pp. 47-71;.
83. Hogg and Abrams, Social Identifications;.
84. Donald Taylor and Fathali Moghaddam, Theories of Intergroup Relations: International Social Psychological Perspectives (New York: Praeger, 1987);.
85. Henri Tajfel, ed., Social Identity and Intergroup Relations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982);.
86. Jacob M. Rabbie, “The Effects of Intragroup Cooperation and Intergroup Competition on In-group Cohesion and Out-group Hostility,” in Alexander H. Harcourt and Frans B. M. Waal, eds., Coalitions and Alliances in Humans and Other Animals (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), pp. 175-205;.
87. Jacob Rabbie, Jan Schot, and Lieuwe Visser, “Social Identity Theory: A Conceptual and Empirical Critique from the Perspective of a Behavioral Interaction Model,” European Journal of Social Psychology 19 (May-June 1989), pp. 171-202; and.
88. Norman Berkowitz, “Evidence that Subjects’ Expectancies Confound Intergroup Bias in Tajfel's Minimal Group Paradigm,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 20 (April 1994), pp. 184–95.
89. Hogg and Abrams, Social Identifications, p. 19.
90. Also see Waldemar Lilli and Jürgen Rehm, “Judgmental Processes as Bases of Intergroup Conflict,” in Stroebe et al., The Social Psychology of Intergroup Conflict, p. 30; and.
91. Tajfel and Turner, “The Social Identity Theory of Intergroup Behaviour,” pp. 15–16.
92. Michael Hogg, The Social Psychology of Group Cohesiveness (New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1992), pp. 90–92.
93. On the role that self-esteem plays in SIT, see Fisher, The Social Psychology of Intergroup and International Conflict Resolution;.
94. Hogg and Abrams, Social Identifications;.
95. Jennifer Crocker and Riia Luhtanen, “Collective Self-Esteem and Ingroup Bias,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 58 (January 1990), pp. 60–67.
96. Hewstone, “Attributional Bases of Intergroup Conflict,” 52–53.
97. See for example, C. N. Masson and M. Verkuyten, “Prejudice, Ethnic Identity, Contact, and Ethnic Group Preferences Among Dutch Young Adolescents,” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 23 (January 1993), pp. 156–68 and p. 158 in particular.
98. For another study that tests hypotheses on ethnocentrism from SIT, see Peter Grant, “Ethnocentrism in Response to a Threat to Social Identity,” Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, vol. 8, no. 6, 1993, pp. 143–54.
99. Taylor and Moghaddam, Theories of Intergroup Relations, p. 78.
100. Michael Hogg and Dominic Abrams, “Social Motivation, Self-Esteem and Social Identity,” in Abrams and Hogg, Social Identity Theory, pp. 28–47. The quotation is from p. 46.
101. Hinkle and Brown, “Intergroup Comparisons and Social Identity,” p. 68.
102. For an extension of SIT to cover “social emotions,” see Eliot Smith, “Social Identity and Social Emotions,” In Diane M. Mackie and David L. Hamilton, eds., Affect, Cognition, and Stereotyping: Interactive Processes in Group Perception (New York: Academic Press, 1993), pp. 297–315.
103. David Wilder, “Cognitive Factors Affecting the Success of Intergroup Contact,” in Worchel and Austin, Psychology of Intergroup Relations, pp. 49–66 and p. 50 in particular.
104. For a normative explanation of the minimal-group paradigm, see Henri Tajfel, M. G. Billig, R. P. Bundy, and Claude Flament, “Social Categorization and Intergroup Behaviour,” European Journal of Social Psychology, vol. 1, no. 2, 1971, pp. 149-78.
105. For discussion and citations, see Hogg and Abrams, “Social Motivation, Self-Esteem, and Social Identity.”.
106. Henri Tajfel and Michael Billig, “Familiarity and Categorization in Intergroup Behavior,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 10 (March 1974), pp. 159–70.
107. Also see Alan Branthwaite, Susan Doyle, and Nicholas Lightbrown, “The Balance Between Fairness and Discrimination,” European Journal of Social Psychology 9 (April-June 1979), pp. 149-63; and.
108. John Turner, “Fairness or Discrimination in Intergroup Behaviour? A reply to Branthwaite, Doyle, and Lightbrown,” European Journal of Social Psychology 10 (April-June 1980), pp. 131-47.
109. For additional evidence on the strength of fairness norms, see Kristina Diekmann, Steven Samuels, Lee Ross, and Max Bazerman, “Self-Interest and Fairness in Problems of Resource Allocation,” manuscript, Kellogg School of Business, Northwestern University, 1994.
110. Margaret Wetherell, “Cross-Cultural Studies of Minimal Groups: Implications for the Social Identity Theory of Intergroup Relations,” in Tajfel, Social Identity and Intergroup Relations, pp. 207-40 and pp. 220–21 in particular.
111. Wendt, “Anarchy is What States Make of It,” p. 401.
112. Turner, Rediscovering the Social Group.
113. See also Fabio Lorenzi-Cioldi and William Doise, “Levels of Analysis and Social Identity,” in Abrams and Hogg, Social Identity Theory, pp. 71–88.
114. For a discussion of the influence of intragroup and interpersonal norms in the minimal-group experiment, see Turner, “Fairness or Discrimination in Intergroup Behaviour.”.
115. For additional evidence of the prosocial orientation of Polynesian children, see Nancy Graves and Theodore Graves, “The Cultural Context of Prosocial Development,” in Diane Bridgeman, ed., The Nature of Prosocial Development (New York: Academic Press, 1983), pp. 243–64.
116. Marilynn Brewer and Sherry Schneider, “Social Identity and Social Dilemmas: A Double-Edged Sword,” in Abrams and Hogg, Social Identity Theory, pp. 169–84.
117. Harry Triandis, Robert Bontempo, and Marcelo Villareal, “Individualism and Collectivism: Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Self-Ingroup Relationships,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 54 (February 1988), pp. 323–38. The quotation is from p. 335.
118. Edgerton suggests that “ethnocentrism is as widespread and virulent today as at any time in history.” See Robert Edgerton, Sick Societies: Challenging the Myth of Primitive Harmony (New York: The Free Press, 1992), p. 55.
119. For a review of theoretical explanations for ethnocentrism, see Robert Levine and Donald Campbell, Ethnocentrism: Theories of Conflict, Ethnic Attitudes, and Group Behavior (New York: Wiley, 1972).
120. Marc Ross, “The Role of Evolution in Ethnocentric Conflict and its Management,” in Journal of Social Issues. 47, no. 3, 1991, pp. 167–85. The quotation is from p. 177.
121. Hinkle and Brown, “Intergroup Comparisons and Social Identity,” pp. 69–70.
122. Saad Said Al-Zahrani and Stan Kaplowitz, “Attributional Biases in Individualistic and Collectivistic Cultures: a Comparison of Americans with Saudis,” Social Psychology Quarterly 56 (September 1993), pp. 223–33. The quotation is from p. 231.
123. Signe Howell and Roy Willis, “Introduction,” in Signe Howell and Roy Willis, eds., Societies at Peace (New York: Routledge, 1989), pp. 1–28 and p. 10 in particular.
124. Marilynn Brewer and Donald Campbell, Ethnocentrism and Intergroup Attitudes: East African Evidence (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1976).
125. See also Marilynn Brewer, “The Role of Ethnocentrism in Intergroup Conflict,” in Worchel and Austin, Psychology of Intergroup Relations pp. 88-102; and.
126. Donald Horowitz, “Group Comparison and the Sources of Conflict,” in Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), pp. 141–84.
127. Hans J. Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations, 3d ed. (New York: Knopf, 1962), pp. 3–4.
128. Wendt, “Anarchy is What States Make of It,” p. 405.
129. This is called the actor-observer difference. See E. E. Jones and R. E. Nisbett, The Actor and the Observer: Divergent Perceptions of the Causes of Behavior (Morristown, N.J.: General Learning Press, 1971).
130. Linda Stinson and William Ickes, “Empathic Accuracy in the Interactions of Male Friends Versus Male Strangers,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 62 (May 1992), pp. 297–315. The quotation is from pp. 787–88.
131. Brewer, “The Role of Ethnocentrism in Intergroup Conflict,” p. 101.
132. See Wendt, “Anarchy is What States Make of It,” p. 405; Mead, Mind, Self and Society, p. 256; and.
133. John Hewitt, Self and Society: A Symbolic Interactionist Social Psychology (Boston: Alyn and Bacon, 1984), p. 143.
134. On the importance of construal, see Lee Ross, “Recognizing the Role of Construal Processes,” in Irvin Rock, ed., The Legacy of Solomon Asch: Essays in Cognition and Social Psychology (Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1990), pp. 77-96; and.
135. Dale W. Griffin and Lee Ross, “Subjective Construal, Social Inference, and Human Misunderstanding,” in Mark P. Zanna, ed., Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 24 (New York: Academic Press, 1991), pp. 319-59.
136. Ross, “Recognizing the Role of Construal Processes.”.
137. Cited by Alan Cowell, “Iran Sees U.S. Aid to Kurds as Insult,” New York Times 5May 1991, p. A18.
138. Ernest May, “Capabilities and Proclivities,” in Ernest May, ed., Knowing One's Enemies (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1984), pp. 503-12. The quotation is from p. 538.
139. The quotations are from Wendt, “Anarchy is What States Make of It,” p. 407.
140. Karl Deutsch et al., Political Community and the North Atlantic Area (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1957), p. 36.
141. See Snidal, “International Cooperation Among Relative Gains Maximizers,” pp. 400-401; and.
142. Donald Campbell, “The Two Distinct Routes Beyond Kin Selection to Ultrasociality: Implications for the Humanities and Social Sciences,” in Bridgeman, The Nature of Prosocial Development, p. 33.
143. Snidal, “International Cooperation Among Relative Gains Maximizers,” p. 400.
144. On group cohesiveness, see Brewer and Schneider, “Social Identity and Social Dilemmas.”.
145. See C. Daniel Batson, The Altruism Question (Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1991).
146. For a more optimistic view, see David Lumsdaine, Moral Vision in International Politics (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993).
147. Caporael et al., “Selfishness Examined,” pp. 692–93.
148. Samuel Gaertner et al., “The Common Ingroup Identity Model,” in Wolfgang Stroebe and Miles Hewstone, eds., European Review of Social Psychology, vol. 4 (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1993).
149. Analysts cannot agree on when contact will ameliorate rather than exacerbate intergroup conflict. For a brief review, see Diane Mackie and David Hamilton, “Affect, Cognition, and Stereotyping,” in Diane Mackie and David Hamilton, eds., Affect, Cognition, and Stereotyping, pp. 371–83 and especially pp. 378–80.
150. Also see Marilynn Brewer and Norman Miller, “Contact and Cooperation: When Do They Work?” in Phyllis Katz and Dalmas Taylor, eds., Eliminating Racism: Profiles in Controversy (New York: Plenum Press, 1988), pp. 315–26.
151. See Lynn Eden, “Constructing Destruction: The Making of Organizational Knowledge About U.S. Nuclear Weapons Effects,” manuscript, Stanford University, 1995;.
152. Elizabeth Kier, Imagining War: France and Britain Between the Wars (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, forthcoming);.
153. Alastair I. Johnston, Cultural Realism: Strategic Culture and Grand Strategy in Ming China (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995);.
154. Audie Klotz, Protesting Prejudice: Apartheid and the Politics of Norms in International Relations (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, forthcoming);.
155. Thomas Risse-Kappen, Cooperation Among Democracies: Norms, Transnational Relations, and the European Influence on U.S. Foreign Policy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, forthcoming); and.
156. Alexander Wendt, Social Theory of International Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, forthcoming).