HUMANITARIAN ASSISTANCE IN NON-INTERNATIONAL ARMED CONFLICT: THE FOURTH WAVE OF RIGHTS, DUTIES AND REMEDIES

Israel Yearbook on Human Rights

Volumn 31, Issue , 2002, Pages 183-217

  O'Connell, Mary Ellen ^a  

^a OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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EID: 84968938813     PISSN: 03335925     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1163/9789004423152_009     Document Type: Chapter

References (103)

1. Guiding Principleson the Right to Humanitarian Assistance (International Institute of Humanitarian Law, 1993).
2. Geneva Convention (I) for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field, 1949, 75 U.N.T.S. 31;
3. Geneva Convention (II) for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea, 1949, 75 U.N.T.S. 85;
4. Geneva Convention (III) Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, 1949, 75 U.N.T.S. 135;
5. Geneva Convention (IV) Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, 1949, 75 U.N.T.S. 287.
6. Protocol (II) Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts, 1977, 1125 U.N.T.S. 609.
7. Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field, 1864, 129 C.T.S. 361.
8. Laws of Armed Conflicts 339 (D. Schindler & J. Toman eds., 3rd ed., 1988).
9. See 4 Commentary, Geneva Conventions 3-9 (J. Pictet ed., 1958).
10. P. Macalister-Smith, International Humanitarian Assistance, Disaster Relief Actions in International Law and Organization 11-12 (1985);
11. Final Act and Conventions of 12 August 1949, 75 U.N.T.S. 1.
12. M. Huber, quoted in J. Pictet, Development and Principles of International Humanitarian Law 42 (1985).
13. as is so well known, at the Battle of Solferino, Italy in 1859. The Swiss banker Henry Dunant's attempt to aid the wounded on the battlefield continued in the founding of the Red Cross Movement. Macalister-Smith, The first Convention aimed at humanitarian assistance was the 1864 Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Conditions of the Wounded in Armies in the Field, supra note 5. It was revised in 1906 and 1929: Geneva Convention of July 6, 1906, for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armies in the Field, 202 C.T.S. 144;
14. Geneva Convention ofJuly 27, 1929 for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armies in the Field, 118 L.N.T.S. 303. The 1949 Geneva Conventions were the first to mention non-international armed conflict and humanitarian assistance.
15. S. Junod, "Additional Protocol It: History and Scope", 33 Am. U. L. Rev. 29, 30 (1983).
16. G. Best, Humanity in Warfare 290 (1980).
17. ed., 1960).
18. See F. Kalshoven, "Assistance to the Victims of Armed conflicts and Other Disasters", in Assisting the Victims of Armed Conflict and Other Disasters 13, 22 (F. Kalshoven ed., 1989).
19. see J. Patrnogic, "Some Reflections on Humanitarian Principles Applicable in Relief Actions",
20. Macalister-Smith, 26. According to A. Roberts: The concepts of impartiality and neutrality have for over a century been central to most approaches to humanitarian action in war. ICRC exemplifies this tradition. In its definition, the principle of impartiality means that the Red Cross 'makes no discrimination as to nationality, race, religious beliefs, class or political opinions. It endeavours to relieve the suffering of individuals, being guided solely by their needs, and to give priority to the most urgent cases of distress'. The principle of neutrality is defined thus: 'In order to continue to enjoy the confidence of all, the Red Cross may not take sides in hostilities or engage at any time in controversies of a political, racial, religious or ideological nature'.
21. A. Roberts, "Humanitarian Action in War, Aid, Protection, and Impartiality in a Vacuum", Adelphi Paper(No. 305, 1996), at 51, citing the Fundamental Principles of the Red Cross, proclaimed by the XXth International Conference of the Red Cross, Vienna, 1965. Independence is also often mentioned together with impartiality and neutrality. It refers to independence from governments. For some organizations this means taking no funding from governments. The terms "impartial", "neutral", and "independence" are not used with precision. Care must be exercised in evaluating any speaker's meaning.
22. see also Junod, at 30. Art. 3 does indicate the presence of an armed conflict. It does not reach natural disasters, though the type of aid, the means of distribution, and many of the legal questions in the situation of humanitarian assistance to victims of natural disasters are similar. This report will focus on armed conflict situations only. For a discussion of humanitarian assistance in natural disaster situations, in Studies and Essays on International Humanitarian Law and Red Cross Principles, Essays in Honour of Jean Pictet 925 (C. Swinarski ed., 1984);
23. Schindler, "Humanitarian Assistance, Humanitarian Interference and International Law", in Essays in Honour of Wang Tieya 689, 696, n. 17 (R. St. John Macdonald ed., 1994).
24. Id.; but see Y. Dinstein who states, "the parties to the conflict can always choose to decline it": Y. Dinstein, "The Right to Humanitarian Assistance", 53 Nay. War Col. Rev. (2000), available at www.nwc.navy.mil/press/Review/nwcrindex.htm, at 5.
25. C. Lysaght, "The Scope of Protocol II and its Relations to Common Article 3", 33 Am. U. L. Rev. 9, 12 (1983), but see on the difficulties of enforcing Common Art. 3, L.C. Green, "Enforcement of the Law in International and Non-international Armed Conflicts - The Way Ahead", 24 Denv. J. Int'lL. & Pol'y 285, 309 (1996).
26. D. Jacobs. The Brutalityof Nations4 (1987).
27. part in fighting. 5.
28. J.E. Thompson, American Policy and African Famine: The Nigeria-Biafra War 1966-1970 28-41 (1990).
29. Biafra Mercy Corridor for Supplies London Tmes, Jul. 13, 1968, at 1, quoted in Thompson, at 105.
30. Excerpt from An Appeal in Die Zeit, quoted in Jacobs, 78.
31. B. Kouchner, Morals of Urgent Need, in Assisting the Victims of Armed Conflict and OtherDisasters55 (1989).
32. M. Bothe et al., New Rules for Victims of Armed Conflicts 645 (1982).
33. ICRC, Commentary on the Additional Protocols of 8 June 1977 to the Geneva Conventionsof 12August 1949 1479 (1987).
34. (R. Bernhardt ed., 1982).
35. Dinstein, at 5, citing R. Provost, "Starvation as a Weapon: Legal Implications of the United Nations Food Blockade against Iraq and Kuwait", 30 Col. J. Trans. L. 577, 612 (1992).
36. See R. Brody, "Recent Development: The United Nations and Human Rights in El Salvador's 'Negotiated Revolution"', 8 Harv. Hum. Rts. J. 153 (1995).
37. 5 Case 10.480, Inter-Am. CHR, No. 1/99.
38. Human Rights, [1998] I.A.C.H.R. 531, Rpt. No. 1/99, Case 10.480, para. 65.
39. D. Rothenberg, "Negotiation and Dispute Resolution in the Sri Lankan Context: Lessons from the 1994-1995 Peace Talks", 22 FordhamInt'lL.J. 504, 514 (1998).
40. N. Tiruchelvam, "Sri Lanka's Ethnic Conflict and Preventative Action: The Role of NGOs", in Vigilance and Vengeance 147, 154 (R.I. Rotberg ed., 1996).
41. P.J. Costa & P. Evans, "The Indian Supply Drop into Sri Lanka", 3 Conn. J. Int'l L. 417, 418 (1988).
42. "Dear Delegates: On this date we have transmitted our notice of acceptance of the Geneva Conventions I-IV of 1949 and the Protocols Additional I and II to the Geneva Conventions to United Nations Headquarters and to the International Committee of the Red Cross". M.H. Hoffman, "The Application of International Humanitarian Law in Sri Lanka: A Compliance Based Case Study on the Rules of War", in Humanitarian Protectionin Non-International Armed Conflict, FirstReports ofa Research Project209, 213 (International Institute of Humanitarian Law, 2001), citing excerpt from letter dated 24 February 1988 from Velolupillai Prabhakaran to Members and Observers, United Nations Commission on Human Rights.
43. 56 Annuairede l'Institutde DroitInternational549 (1975).
44. and Against Nicaragua, [1986] I.C.J. Rep. 14, para. 242.
45. UN G.A. Res. 43/131, 45/100, and 46/182, Annex, point 4
46. 63(11) Annuairede lInstitutde DroitInternational345 (1989).
47. M.E. O'Connell, "Regulating the Use of Force in the 21st Century: The Continuing Importance of State Autonomy", 36 Colum. J. Transnat'lL.473, 484-86 (1997).
48. H. Cook, The Safe Haven in Northern Iraq: International Responsibility for Iraqi Kurdistan35-36 (1995). (N. Al-Nauimi & R. Meese eds., 1995);
49. see also European Commission, 2 Law in Humanitarian Crises, Access to Victims: Right to Intervene or Right of Assistance? (1995).
50. 68 J. Patrnogic, "Humanitarian Assistance - Humanitarian Intervention", in International Legal Issues Arising Under the United Nations Decade of InternationalLaw 1013, 1025
51. Statute of the International Tribunal for the Prosecution of Persons Responsible for Genocide and Other Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law Committed in the Territory of Rwanda and Rwandan Citizens Responsible for Genocide and Other Violations Committed in the Territory of Rwanda and Rwandan Citizens Responsible for Genocide and Other Violations Committed in the Territory of Neighbouring States, Between 1 January 1994 and 31 December 1994, UN Doc S/RES/955 (1994), 49 UN SCOR (3453rd mtg), 33 I.L.M. 1598 (1994), Art. 4.
52. Prosecutor v. Tadic, Appeal on Jurisdiction, IT-94-1-AR72 (Oct. 2, 1995) 35 I.L.M. 32 (1996), paras. 102-37.
53. S. Neales & A. Clennel, "CARE Aided US Agents in Somalia", Sydney MorningHerald, Feb. 9, 2000 (Westlaw Version WL2310651).
54. of Chaos, in Learning From Somalia: The Lessons of Armed Humanitarian Intervention 77-95, 82-83 (1997).
55. A. Bellos, "Shadow of the Warlords, How Can Agencies Work in Anarchic Somalia?", Guardian, July 2, 1997, at 4 (paragraph removed).
56. J. Prendergast, Crisis Response: HumanitarianBand-Aids in Sudan and Somalia 4-7 (1997).
57. see also The Wider Impact of Humanitarian Assistance, The Case of Sudan and the Implicationsfor European Policy (G. Loane & T. Schuemer eds., 2000).
58. D. Althaus, "Keeping the Chaos Corralled, Relief Workers Wrestle with Restrictions, Frustrations", Houston Chronicle, August 29, 1999 (WL 24250710).
59. M.E. O'Connell, "The UN, NATO, and International Law After Kosovo", 22 Hum. Rts. Q. 57, 74-76 (2000).
60. CARE "Spies" Case Shadow on Aid Agency's Work, Toronto Star, Feb. 15, 2000 (Westlaw Version, WL 1268500595).
61. "Australian Aid Worker Accused of Spying", Agence Fr.-Presse, April 11, 1999 (WL 2581341).
62. D. Rieff, "Kosovo's Humanitarian Circus", 17 World Pol'y J., October 1, 2000 (WL 20783604).
63. Report of the Independent Inquiry into the Actions of the United Nations During the 1994 Genocide in Rwanda, at 7, U.N. Doc. S/1999/1257 (Dec. 15, 1999), at http://www.un.org/News/ossg/rwanda-report.htm.
64. F. Hampson, "Nongovernmental Organizations in Situations of Conflict: The Negotiation of Change", in The Law of Armed Conflict: Into the Next Millennium 233, 247 (M.N. Schmitt & L. Green, eds., 1998).
65. J. Pomfret, "Aid Dilemma: Keeping it From Oppressors; U.N., Charities Find Crises Make Them Tools of War", Wash. Post, Sept. 23, 1997, at AO1.
66. see also J. O'Neill, "Rwanda Mission Haunts Aid Workers, 'It's almost been like a nightmare', CARE Canada Official Says", Toronto Star, Feb. 10, 1997, at A ll.
67. V. Nanda uses the term "empowerment" to capture the role of NGOs in international decision-making which emerged in the 1990's.
68. See V. Nanda, "Non-Governmental Organizations and International Humanitarian Law", in The Law ofArmed Conflict: Into the Next Millennium, 337.
69. Case Concerning the Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (Belgium v. Spain), [1970] I.C.J. Rep. 3.
70. L. Henkin, R.C. Pugh, 0. Schachter & H. Smit, InternationalLaw: Cases and Materials 375 (3rd ed., 1993): "Customary international law and international agreements have created obligations of states in favor of natural and juridical persons. The customary law of state responsibility, under which a state may be responsible to another state for certain injuries to aliens, is an important example...". Under the traditional law of state responsibility, as seen in the Mavrommatis Case..., certain injuries to foreign nationals were considered to be offenses against the state of which they were nationals. Once the injured alien exhausts available remedies under the legal system of the state causing the injury, the state of which the injured party is a national may seek reparation in a state-to-state claim".
71. Regarding human rights violations, see Doe v. Unocal Corp., 963 F. Supp. 880 (C.D. Cal., 1998);
72. Bowoto v. Chevron, No. 99-2506 (N.D. Cal.). Regarding environmental claims,
73. see Beanal v. Freeport-McMoran, Inc., 197 F.3d 161 (5th Cir. La.), Nov. 29, 1999);
74. Aguinda v. Texaco, 2000 WL 122143 (S.D.N.Y.).
75. M. Anderson, Do No Harm: Supporting Local Capacitiesfor Peace throughAid (Local Capacities for Peace Project, The Collaborative for Development Action, Cambridge, MA, 1996).
76. See T. Weiss, "Principles, Politics and Humanitarian Action", 13 Ethics andInternational Affairs 1 (1999);
77. J. Tanguy & F. Terry, Humanitarian Responsibility and Committed Action, ibid., at 29-35;
78. see also Report of the Secretary General, Prevention of Armed Conflict, UN Doc. A/55/985-S/2001/574, at 25.
79. This literature is very large. See e.g., K. Nowrot, "Legal Consequences of Globalization: The Status of Non-Governmental Organizations Under International Law", 6 Ind. J. Glob. L. Stud. 579 (1999). S. Charnovitz, "Two Centuries of Participation: NGOs and International Governance", 18 Mich. J. Int'l. L. 183 (1997).
80. M.-J. Domestici-Met, "Propos sur le droit AI'assistance", in II Law in Humanitarian Crises, Access to Victims Right to Intervene or Right to Receive Humanitarian Assistance?(European Commission, 1995).
81. Ch. Rottensteiner, "The Denial of Humanitarian Assistance as a Crime Under International Law", 81 Rev. Int'l Croix Rouge 555, 568-69 (1999). Despite the exclusion of this crime from the International Criminal Court's jurisdiction, the author believes that starvation as a weapon is a war crime in non-international armed conflict and that impeding relief is a form of using starvation as a weapon, ergo impeding relief is a war cnme.
82. Red Cross Restarts Chiapas Relief, Assoc. Press, Nov. 12, 1998 (WL 22417925).
83. A. Ruiz, "Zapatistas say Fox Erecting Obstacles to Peace", San Antonio Express-News, Feb. 22, 2001 (WL13517882).
84. J.W. Anderson, "Mexico Expels Foreign Rights Activists, Deportations Stem from Chiapas Troubles", Washington Post, April 14, 1998 (WL2478885).
85. J. Cotton, "The Emergence of an Independent East Timor: National and Regional Challenges", 22 Con. Southeast Asia Stud., 2000 (WL 22308627);
86. see also Report of the International Commission of Inquiry on East Timor, UN Doc. S/2000/59, A/54/726, Jan. 31, 2000.
87. "'As the situation in the island is constantly deteriorating and the number of casualties increase, access has been granted so far to two organizations only, while the need for a massive humanitarian intervention has become extremely acute and urgent,' said Gianni Rufini, coordinator of the VOICE network....VOICE (Voluntary Organizations for Cooperation in Emergencies), which represents 80 European non-governmental organizations (NGO), asked the newly appointed executive European Commission and the European Parliament to use their influence on the Indonesian government in order to remove restrictions". Niccolo Sarno, Rights-Timor: Humanitarian Aid Not Reaching Refugees, NGOs Say, Inter Press Service, Sept. 22, 1999 (WL 27374146).
88. "l Y.V. Ushakov, "Humanitarian and Legal Aspects of the Crisis in Chechnya", 23 Fordham Int'lL. J. 1155, 1166-67 (2000).
89. See also J. Perlez, "Wchechnya Challenge, War Threatening US Strategy Goals", N.Y. Times, Nov. 15, 1999, at Al ("Until last week, when Moscow allowed a European team into the region to assess the needs of the refugees, it had refused to grant Western aid workers access to the area". Ibid., at Al5).
90. Briton Arrested in Chechnya Banned from Entering Russia, Interfax, Aug. 7, 2001 (WL24890822);
91. Gluck Hopes Medicins Sans Frontieres Will Continue Their Work in Chechnya, Interfax, Feb. 27, 2001 (WL13613264).
92. UN Doc. S/RES/1333 (2000);
93. this Resolution strengthens sanctions already imposed in UN Doc. S/RES/1267 (1999).
94. Its National: Afghan govt. pulls out of talks with opposition, protests sanctions, Pak. Press Int'l Info. Serv. Ltd., Dec. 20, 2000 (WL 30047543);
95. Off-Target Sanctions, Boston Globe, Dec. 26, 2000 (WL 3356913).
96. "The Taliban Dilemma: Mores Sanctions Against the Taliban?: They Will Also Hurt Afghanistan's Starving", Economist, Dec. 16, 2000 (WL 8144844).
97. Order Army Into Guerrilla Zone", Washington Post, Jan. 13, 2002, at A17;
98. see also D. Garcia-Pena, "Humanitarian Protection in Non-International Conflicts: A Case Study of Colombia", 30 IsraelY.B. Hum. Rts. 179 (2000).
99. The European Court of Human Rights made several decisions re-affirming traditional sovereign immunity in McElhinney v. Ireland (App. No. 31253/96);
100. Al-Adsani v. United Kingdom (App. No. 35763/97);
101. Fogarty v. United Kingdom (App. No. 37112/97) (2001). US Courts have limited recent attempts to enforce international law through the Alien Tort Claims Act.
102. See Doe v. Unocal Corp., 963 F. Supp. 880 (C.D. Cal., 1998) and Beanal v. Freeport-McMoran, Inc., 197 F.3d 161 (5th Cir. La.), Nov. 29, 1999).
103. P. Bishop, "Comment: Aid Caught in the Crossfire: Patrick Bishop Believes that Humanitarianism Must Remain Independent of Governments", Daily Telegraph, Dec. 10, 1999 (WL27203200).