Criminal Victims/Witnesses of Crimes: The Criminal Offences of Smuggling and Trafficking of Human Beings in Germany, Discretionary Residence Rights, and Other Ways of Protecting Victims

German Law Journal

Volumn 6, Issue 3, 2005, Pages 605-648

  Ziegler, Katja S ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

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EID: 84967120915     PISSN: None     EISSN: 20718322     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S2071832200013833     Document Type: Article

References (212)

1. On the international level, see the UN Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, UN Doc. A/55/383, p. 53 (2000). Art. 7 of this instrument reflects the idea of a residence permit to victims of trafficking. The further Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, UN Doc. A/55/383, p. 62 (2000) does not contain any provision concerning residence rights.
2. See, e.g., the Council Framework Decision on Combating Trafficking in Human Beings of 19 July 2002, 2002 O.J (L 203) 1. Tom Obokata, EU Council Framework Decision on Combating Trafficking in Human Beings: A Critical Appraisal, 40 COMMON MARKET LAW REVIEW 917 (2003); Ryszard Piotrowicz, European Initiatives in the Protection of Victims of Trafficking who Give Evidence Against Their Traffickers, INT'L J. OF REFUGEE L. 263 (2002).
3. See, e.g., the Council Framework Decision on Combating Trafficking in Human Beings of 19 July 2002, 2002 O.J (L 203) 1. Tom Obokata, EU Council Framework Decision on Combating Trafficking in Human Beings: A Critical Appraisal, 40 COMMON MARKET LAW REVIEW 917 (2003); Ryszard Piotrowicz, European Initiatives in the Protection of Victims of Trafficking who Give Evidence Against Their Traffickers, INT'L J. OF REFUGEE L. 263 (2002).
4. Art. 7 of the Framework Decision of the EC Council on Combating Trafficking in Human Beings of 19 July 2002, 2002 O.J. (L 203) 1.
5. Title IV, Art. 61-68 EC, especially, Art. 63 No. 3 EC.
6. Prominently laid out by the Conclusions of the Presidency of the European Council of Tampere, 15/16 October 1999, para. 10 ff.
7. The more recent measures adopted were: "Qualification Directive" - Council Directive 2004/83/EC of 29 April 2004 "on minimum standards for the qualification and status of third country nationals or stateless persons as refugees or as persons who otherwise need international protection and the content of the protection granted", OJ 2004 L 304/12, and the "Family Reunification Directive" - Council Directive 2003/86/EC of 22 September 2003 "on the right to family reunification", 2003 O.J. (L 251) 12. Summary of the measures adopted up to then at Katja Ziegler, Integration und Ausgrenzung im Lichte der Migrationspolitik der Europäischen Union - die Festung Europa?, in INTEGRATION UND RECHT 127, 140 (Sahlfeld et al. eds., 2003).
8. The European Council of Tampere (15/16 October 1999) stressed in its Conclusions (para. 3) the need for the "Union to develop common policies on asylum and immigration, while taking into account the need for a consistent control of external borders to stop illegal immigration and to combat those who organise it and commit related international crimes."
9. Conclusions of the Presidency of the European Council of Tampere, 15/16 October 1999, para. 23.
10. Council Directive 2002/90/EC of 28 November 2002, 2002 O.J. (L 328) 17.
11. Commission Proposal (COM) (2002) 71 final, 2002 O.J. (C 126) E/393.
12. Of a duration of six months, renewable see Art. 8 (4) Directive 2004/81/EC of 29 April 2004, 2004 O.J. (L 261) 19.
13. Explanatory Memorandum, COM (2002) 71 final, p. 7 (section 2.2.2.).
14. Art. 3 (2)Directive 2004/81/EC of 29 April 2004, 2004 O.J. (L 261) 19. Also, the access to the labor market has been put more at the discretion of Member States (Art. 11).
15. See Art. 10 of the Proposal, COM (2002) 71 final, p. 22 on the one hand and Art. 8 Directive 2004/81/EC of 29 April 2004, 2004 O.J. (L 261) 19.
16. Friedrich-Christian Schroeder, Irrwege aktionistischer Gesetzgebung - das 26. StÄG (Menschenhandel), 50 JURISTENZEITUNG 231, 232 (1995).
17. Statute of 30 July 2004, Federal Law Gazette (Bundesgesetzblatt, BGBl.) 2004 I, p. 1950 ff.
18. This article will refer to the numbers of the law in force. §§ 92a and 92b of the (old) Foreigners' Act (Ausländergesetz, AuslG) relate to 96 and 97 AufenthG (new).
19. Statute of 11 February 2005, BGBl. I 2005, p. 239, in force 19 February 2005.
20. §§ 180b, 181 (old), §§ 232, 233, 233a (new) StGB.
21. See Explanatory Memorandum in Deutscher Bundestag, Drucksache (BT Drs.) 15/3045 p. 6. Trafficking for the purpose of organ transplantation would remain in a separate statute: the Transplantation Act, BGBl I 1997, p. 2631.
22. JOHANNES HOFMANN, MENSCHENHANDEL. BEZIEHUNGEN ZUR ORGANISIERTEN KRIMINALITÄT UND VERSUCHE DER STRAFRECHTLICHEN BEKÄMPFUNG 93 (2002).
23. Landeskriminalamt Nordrhein-Westfalen (LKA NRW), Lagebild Menschenhandel Nordrhein- Westfalen 2002, p. 24, available at http://www.lka.nrw.de/lagebilder/lagebild-menschenhandel- 2002.pdf.
24. As was the case, in BGH, 9 NStZ-RR 233 (2004). See also the Explanatory Memorandum to the Proposal for a Council Directive "on the short-term residence permit issued to victims of action to facilitate illegal immigration or trafficking in human beings who cooperate with the competent authorities", COM (2002) 71 final, p. 2 (section 1.1.).
25. See, e.g., the facts of BGH, 52 JZ 153 (1997).
26. According to § 3 (1) AufenthG.
27. See the parliamentary debate on the amendment of the trafficking provisions, Deutscher Bundestag, Plenarprotokoll 15/109 of 7 May 2004, pp. 9946 ff.; also the Question of Members of the German Parliament on trafficking of human beings in Germany to the Federal Government, Deutscher Bundestag, Drucksache 15/1938 of 5 November 2003, p. 2, and Answer of the Federal Government, Drucksache 15/2065 of 21 November 2003.
28. Cf. Klaus Sieveking, Staatliche Reaktionen auf Illegalität in Deutschland - europa-, ausländer- und arbeitsrechtliche Aspekte, in, MIGRATION UND ILLEGALITÄT 91 (Eberhard Eichenhofer, ed., 1999).
29. The court's judgment was followed by a parliamentary questioning of the Government, in which the government was accused of by-passing immigration law, see Deutscher Bundestag (BT), Plenarprotokoll 15/99 of 24 March 2004, pp. 8833 ff.; the current debate in the opposition is about instigating an inquiry commission, see Peter Carstens, Andere Instrumente erforderlich, FRANKFURTER ALLGEMEINE ZEITUNG, 11 November 2004, at 3.
30. So called Volmer-Erlass, named after the then Secretary of State, who was a member of the Green Party in the coalition government.
31. LG Köln, judgment of 9 February 2004, B. 109-32/02; see also Guido Heinen, Schleuserkriminalität: Justiz kritisiert Auswärtiges Amt, DIE WELT, 11 February 2004; Barbara Oertel, Schleusung ohne staatliche Billigung, taz, 14 February 2004, at 7; FAZ, 26 February 2004, at 4.
32. LG Köln, judgment of 9 February 2004, B. 109-32/02; see also Guido Heinen, Schleuserkriminalität: Justiz kritisiert Auswärtiges Amt, DIE WELT, 11 February 2004; Barbara Oertel, Schleusung ohne staatliche Billigung, taz, 14 February 2004, at 7; FAZ, 26 February 2004, at 4.
33. In conjunction with §§ 26, 27 StGB which may be read into all criminal offences.
34. Mentioned in § 95 AufenthG.
35. § 95 AufenthG. Less severe breaches of immigration law are only offences under administrative law (e.g. negligent stay without permit), §§ 98 AufenthG, § 10 EU Free Movement Act (Freizügigkeitsgesetz/EU 2004). These are outside the ambit of this article. See KATHARINA AURNHAMMER, SPEZIELLES AUSLÄNDERSTRAFRECHT 91 (1996). The obligation on carriers not to transport persons into Germany who lack the necessary passport or visa can be enforced by fines (§ 63 AufenthG).
36. § 95 AufenthG.
37. §§ 53-55 AufenthG.
38. Survey by Volker Westphal & Edgar Stoppa, Straftaten bei unerlaubter Einreise und unerlaubtem Aufenthalt von Ausländern, 52 NJW 2137 (1999); and Hans-Peter Welte, Illegaler Aufenthalt in Deutschland
39. ZEITSCHRIFT FÜR AUSLÄNDERRECHT 54 (2002); Horst Steiner, Schleusungskriminalität aus der Sicht des Revisionsgerichts, in ILLEGALE MIGRATION UND SCHLEUSUNGSKRIMINALITÄT 141, 151 (Eric Minthe, ed., 2002).
40. § 96 (1) no. 1 and 3 AufenthG. See Court of Appeal (Oberlandesgericht, OLG) Frankfurt, 1 Ws 106/00, judgment of 18 August 2000, 6 NStZ-RR 57 (2001); also also Court of Appeal (Kammergericht (KG)) Berlin, 1 Ss 198/01, judgment of 28 September 2001.
41. § 96 (1) no. 1 and 3 AufenthG. Further acts come under the broadly defined concept of illegal entry and residence in § 95 AufenthG (breach of a prohibition to take up employment). Other forms of illegal stay may result from engaging in prohibited political activity (No. 4), active resistance to fingerprinting and photographing (No. 5), or membership in a secret association of foreigners (No. 7), See von Pollern, Das spezielle Strafrecht für Ausländer, Asylbewerber und EU-Ausländer im Ausländergesetz, Asylverfahrensgesetz und EWG-Aufenthaltsgesetz, 16 ZAR 175-76 (1996).
42. It is a systematic feature of German criminal law to differentiate "normal", aggravated and less severe offences of the same basic offence by adding additional "elements" to it when formulating the statute. This is to be distinguished from sentencing, when aggravating and mitigating "circumstances" will be assessed.
43. § 95 (2) AufenthG.
44. BGH, 53 NJW 1732, para. 19 (2000).
45. § 95 (2) No. 2 AufenthG.
46. See § 84 Asylum Procedure Act (Asylverfahrensgesetz, AsylVfG).
47. § 96 AufenthG.
48. §§ 84 - 86 AsylVfG.
49. BGH, 52 NJW 333 (1997); Kay Hailbronner, Ausländerrecht. Kommentar, Heidelberg, up-to date 31st supplement, August 2002, A 1, § 92 AuslG, para. 55.
50. See Recommendation of the Judicial Committee (Rechtsausschuss), BT Drs. 9/875, p. 26; but also German Federal Constitutional Court (Bundesverfassungsgericht (BVerfG)), 2 BvR 397/02 of 6 March 2003, para. 34 ff.; Victor Pfaff, Prüfungsumfang der Strafgerichte bei unerlaubtem Aufenthalt, ZAR 148 (2003). For previous attempts to construe a justification for reasons of necessity, see Andrik Abramenko, Unerlaubter Aufenthalt und rechtfertigender Notstand - Zur Anwendung von § 34 StGB auf ausländerrechtliche Strafvorschriften, 21 NEUE ZEITSCHRIFT FÜR STRAFRECHT 71 (2001).
51. § 95 (3) AufenthG.
52. Bavarian Court of Justice (Bayerisches Oberstes Landesgericht (BayObLG)), 16 NStZ 287 (1996).
53. Implemented by § 13 (3) AsylVfG.
54. § 95 (5) AufenthG.
55. BGH, 19 NStZ 408, 409 (1999); regional court (Amtsgericht (AG)) Landsberg, 2 Cs 103 Js 112199/00j, judgment of 21 August 2001, 2002 Informationsbrief Ausländerrecht (InfAuslR) 198 f.
56. Art. 16a (2) GG, §§ 26a, 31 (1) 2, 34a (1) AsylVfG, § 60 AufenthG. Held to be constitutional by the German Bundesverfassungsgericht, 94 BVerfGE 49 ff. and 115 ff. See however, European Court of Human Rights, App. No. 43844/98, T.I. v. UK; "Procedures Directive", Amended Proposal for a Council Directive on minimum standards on procedures in Member States for granting and withdrawing refugee status, COM (2002) 326 final, Explanatory Memorandum to Art. 28 on the point of a nonrebuttable presumption of safety.
57. Explicitly Bavarian Administrative Court of Appeal (Bayerischer Verwaltungsgerichtshof (BayVGH))
58. See OLG Dresden, 19 STRAFVERTEIDIGER 259 (1999).
59. OLG Köln, NStZ-RR 24, 25 (2004).
60. In this respect BGH, 19 StV 382 (1999).
61. OLG Köln, 9 NStZ-RR 24, 25 (2004); no criminal offence held by OLG Düsseldorf, 18 StV 139-40 (1998).
62. LG Braunschweig, 36 KLs 806 Js 41519/98, judgment of 26 March 2002 (money transfer to Iraq for immigrant who had no permission to enter).
63. BGH, 9 NStZ-RR 233 (2004); OLG Düsseldorf, 53 NJW 1280 (2000); LG Darmstadt, 2 NStZ-RR 30 (1998); OLG Frankfurt, 13 NStZ 394 (1993).
64. BayObLG, 5 NStZ-RR 226 (2000).
65. § 95 (1) no. 2, 3 AufenthG.
66. BGH, 43 NJW 2207, 2208 (1990). See also OVG Lüneburg, 16 NEUE ZEITSCHRIFT FÜR VERWALTUNGSRECHT 622 (1997) - smuggling by letting rooms with the purpose of enabling prostitution.
67. BGH 43 NJW 2207, 2208 (1990); OLG Düsseldorf, StV 312 (2002); BayObLG, 55 NJW 1663, 1664 (2002); 20. StV 366 (2000); KG Berlin, 1 Ss 263/00 (195/00), order of 4 July 2001.
68. OLG Köln, 8 NStZ-RR 184, 185 (2003). See also criticism of the previous jurisprudence by Peter König, Kann einem omnimodo facturus Beihilfe geleistet werden?, 55 NJW 1623, 1624 (2002).
69. BGH, 42 NJW 1435 (1989) referring to BT Drs. 9/800, p. 11 and 9/847 p. 12; see also examples mentioned by Bernd Walter, Schlepper, Schleuser, Menschenhändler. Der grenzpolizeilichen Alltag an den deutschen Ostgrenzen, KRIMINALISTIK 471, 474 (1998).
70. OLG Oldenburg, 57 NJW 1748 (2004); see also VGH Mannheim, VERWALTUNGSBLÄTTER BADENWÜRTTEMBERG 404 (1995); critical annotation by Stefan Zeitler, "Passkontrolle" durch den Bordellwirt?, VBlBW 44 (1996).
71. OLG Oldenburg, 57 NJW 1748 (2004); see also VGH Mannheim, VERWALTUNGSBLÄTTER BADENWÜRTTEMBERG 404 (1995); critical annotation by Stefan Zeitler, "Passkontrolle" durch den Bordellwirt?, VBlBW 44 (1996).
72. See, e.g., OLG Köln, 8 NStZ-RR 184 (2003).
73. With a mandatory reduction of the punishment for "mere" assistance according to § 27 (2) StGB. This reduction does not apply to the smuggling offences which are independently codified forms of assistance to illegal entry, BGH, 24 NStZ 45 (2004).
74. Under § 95 AufenthG.
75. BGH, 42 NJW 1435, 1436 (1989); BGH, 34 SAMMLUNG IN STRAFSACHEN 299, 303 = 40 NJW 1987 (1987); BayObLG, 42 NJW 1437 (1989) (formula of the judgment reprinted only).
76. Statute of 29 October 1997, BGBl. I, p. 2584.
77. BGH, 24 NStZ 45 (2004).
78. Also critical comment by Edgar Stoppa, in HUBER, HANDBUCH DES AUSLÄNDERRECHTS, § 92a AuslG
79. B, para. 6.
80. § 96 (2) AufenthG.
81. BGH, 18 NStZ 305 (1998).
82. The regular sanction of the German Criminal Code is either a fine or imprisonment (§§ 38, 40 StGB). For certain categories of offences, additional sanctions apply, such as revocation of driver's license (§ 44 StGB) or extended forfeit/confiscation (§ 73d StGB).
83. § 97 AufenthG.
84. German criminal law is built on the distinction between offences and crimes (§ 12 (1) StGB), the latter entailing a minimum of one year imprisonment and automatic liability for attempt (§ 23 (1) StGB).
85. § 30 (2) StGB.
86. §§ 3, 5 - 7 StGB.
87. BayObLG, 5 NStZ-RR 433, 345 (2000); OLG Köln, 20 NStZ 39, 40 (2000).
88. § 9 StGB. For example, when the offence is committed by several persons jointly in a way that each person's individual action is attributable to the others, § 25 (2) StGB.
89. Punishable under § 30 (2) StGB.
90. 39 BGHSt 88, 89; Jörn Lorenz, Die "Schreibtisch-Schleusung" - eine Einführung in das Ausländerstrafrecht
91. NStZ 640, 643 (2002).
92. BT Drs 12/5683, p. 8 (explanatory memorandum to the bill of the Bundesrat).
93. 45 BGHSt 103-108 (NJW 2827 (1999)); BGH, 7 NStZ-RR 23 (2002); also OLG Zweibrücken, 1 Ss 22/95, judgment of 25 March 1995; LG Flensburg, 5 NStZ-RR 124 (2000). In this case the state of destination was not a Schengen state and illegal entry into Germany could not be proven, so § 92a (4) AuslG § 96 (4) AufenthG did not apply, BGH, 7 NStZ-RR 23 (2002).
94. Cf. BGH, 7 NStZ-RR 23 (2002), where the Federal Court of Justice held that where it could not be established that there was assistance to illegal stay in Germany, the "smuggling" out of Germany and into another country did not amount to an offence. Contradictorily, the ending of the judgment was considered to be a contribution to restore the law by ending an illegal residence (para. 3)!
95. See infra note 119. BGH, 21 NStZ 157 (2001); 55 NJW 3642 (2002).
96. 45 BGHSt 103 ff., para. 8.
97. BGH, 21 NStZ 157 (2001); For the temporal scope see BGH, 55 NJW 3642 (2002).
98. Under § 95 (2) AufenthG.
99. §§ § 96, 97 AufenthG.
100. Marriages of convenience would be subsumed under this variant.
101. "Verleitung zur missbräuchlichen Asylantragstellung", §§ 84, 84a AsylVfG.
102. See Edwin M. Schur, Crimes Without Victims. Deviant Behaviour and Public Policy 169 (1965); Hans-Jörg Albrecht, Eine kriminologische Einführung zu Menschenschmuggel und Schleuserkriminalität, in ILLEGALE MIGRATION UND SCHLEUSUNGSKRIMINALITÄT 29 48 (Eric Minthe ed., 2002).
103. § 96, 97 AufenthG.
104. 90 BVerfGE 145, 146, 173.
105. § 234 StGB. Seizure of a person by certain means (force, threat of appreciable harm or trickery) in order to abandon the victim in a helpless situation or force the victim into military service abroad, 39 BGHSt 214; HERBERT TRÖNDLE & THOMAS FISCHER, STRAFGESETZBUCH, § 234, para. 2 (51th ed. 2003).
106. § 236 StGB. To leave children under 14 years of age to a third person with the intent to enrich oneself or another in circumstances where the obligations of a parent or guardian to ensure the well-being of the child are neglected. Further, the provision of placement services for the adoption of minors or to the aim to take in a minor is criminal (up to five years or a fine), where there is an economic motive.
107. Cf. however the above (text around note 22) mentioned amendment.
108. "Menschenhandel".
109. In 2002, 21 out of 203 trafficked women in the Land of Northrhine-Westphalia were German nationals, LKA NRW, Lagebild Menschenhandel Nordrhein-Westfalen, 13 (2002).
110. Under 21 years of age, § 232 (1), 2nd sentence.
111. § 6 No. 4 StGB.
112. LKA NRW, Lagebild Menschenhandel Nordrhein-Westfalen 3 and 14 (2002).
113. § 232 (1) StGB, previously § 180b (1).
114. BT Drs. 7/514, p. 10; BGH, 52 NJW 3276 (1999); 19 NStZ 349 (1999).
115. BGH, 9 NStZ-RR 233 (2004).
116. BGH, 9 NStZ-RR 233 (2004).
117. The new § 232 StGB lowers the threshold with regard to the intensity of the influence of the trafficker (from "bestimmen" in § 180b (old) to "dazu bringen", see BT Drs. 15/3045, p. 8.
118. BGH, judgment of 27 May 2004, 3 StR 500/02; judgment of 20 June 2002, 3StR 135/01, p. 8 f.
119. BGH, 9 NStZ-RR 233 (2004); 45 BGHSt 158, 161 ff.
120. § 232 (1) now puts these on an equal par with prostitution, see BT Drs. 15/3045, p. 8.
121. BGH, 52 NJW 1044 (1999).
122. BGH, 20 NStZ 86 (2000).
123. See BT Drs. 15/3045, p. 8
124. BT Drs. 15/4048, p. 12.
125. This is especially problematic where statement stands against statement without any further evidence. It is exacerbated when there are inconsistencies in the witness statements, Cf. BGH, judgment of 30 May 2000, 4 StR 24/00; Birgit Thoma, Rechtliche Problemstellungen, in BARBARA KOELGES ET AL., PROBLEME DER STRAFVERFOLGUNG UND DES ZEUGINNENSCHUTZES IN MENSCHENHANDELSPROZESSEN 18, 24 (2002).
126. BGH, 9 NStZ-RR 233 (2004); judgment of 20 June 2002, 3 StR 135/01. According to the statistics of trafficking victims in the Land of Northrhine-Westphalia in the year 2002, 22 women out of 203 victims in total already practiced prostitution in their home countries, see LKA NRW, Lagebild Menschenhandel Nordrhein-Westfalen,13, 18 (2002).
127. BGH, 9 NStZ-RR 233 (2004).
128. §§ 181a, 180a StGB.
129. As in BGH, judgment of 20 June 2002, 3StR 135/01.
130. BT Drs. 15/3045, p. 8.
131. Discussion in BGH, judgment of 27 May 2004, 3 StR 500/03, but left open (tendency to answer in the negative as these acts were not considered to be sufficiently separate forms of prostitution to amount to more intensive forms, except in the case of sexually transmitted diseases).
132. BT Drs. 15/4048, p. 12.
133. This means an increase in the sanction (previously up to five years of fine) which was at least influenced by the requirements of the EU Framework Decision to provide - under certain circumstances - for a maxium sanction of at least eight years imprisonment, see BT Drs. 15/4048, p. 12. As a consequence, there was no need anymore to separately codify aggravating circumstances which were previously contained in § 180b (2) StGB (old).
134. Six months imprisonment minimum up to five years, § 181a StGB.
135. § 234 StGB, crime, minimum of one year imprisonment (maximum ten years).
136. §§ 239a, 239b StGB.
137. §§ 235, 236 StGB, respectively. Note that trafficking of children into sexual exploitation is a crime subject to more severe sanctions under § 232 (3) no. 1 StGB.
138. § 181 StGB.
139. Results from the EU Framework Decision, see BT Drs. 15/3045, p. 9.
140. § 232 (4) StGB, § 181 (1) no. 1 & 2 (old).
141. Data according to Federal Criminal Office (Bundeskriminalamt (BKA), Lagebild Menschenhandel 2001 and 2002, respectively, available at http://www.bka.de/lageberichte/ mh/2002/mh2002.pdf.
142. A a change to a location where the victim is at the mercy of the perpetrator, BGH, 12 NStZ 43 (1992).
143. §§ 232 (2), 23 (1) StGB.
144. § 181c StGB.
145. Punishability of attempted offence in § 233a (3) StGB.
146. Only under the limited conditions of § 30 StGB.
147. § 233 (2) StGB: victim a child, serious physical abuse/danger of death, violence/threat or professional or gang action.
148. § 95 (5) AufenthG.
149. § 154b (3) StPO.
150. VG Hamburg, 8 VG 3964/99, judgment of 11 January 2001, InfAuslR 218 (2001): breach of § 92 (1) No.
151. and 6 AuslG now § 95 (1) no. 1, 3 AufenthG justifies expulsion unless lack of blameworthiness is positively confirmed. When a criminal procedure is not initiated (and hence no finding of lack of blame occurs), there are heightened requirements of proportionality if the expulsion occurs for reasons of public interest (preventative deterrence).
152. Strafbefehl, § 407 StPO.
153. § 47 (1) StGB provides that short prison sentences of less than six months are the exception and need to be justified by special circumstances. The underlying rationale is that the harmful effect of being exposed to a prison environment outweighs any corrective effect of short sentences.
154. Eric Minthe, Illegale Migration und Schleusungskriminalität, in ILLEGALE MIGRATION UND SCHLEUSUNGSKRIMINALITÄT 17, 23 (Minthe ed., 2002); Kerstin Nowotny, Schleusungskriminalität aus staatsanwaltlicher Sicht, in id., at 93, 102.
155. §154c StPO.
156. § 154 c (2) StPO
157. Id., at 200.
158. § 31 AufenthG.
159. BGBl. 2000 I, p. 742.
160. § 31 (2), 2nd sentence AufenthG.
161. Joachim Renzikowski, Frauenhandel - Freiheit für die Täter, Abschiebung für die Opfer?, 32 ZRP 53, 54 (1999).
162. No. 42.3.2 of the Guidelines (Allgemeine Verwaltungsvorschriften zum Ausländerrecht), Bundesanzeiger, Beilage Nr. 188a of 6 October 2000.
163. BKA, Lagebild Menschenhandel 2001, p. 21.
164. "Duldung" under § 60a (2) AufenthG.
165. Only a waiver of expulsion.
166. § 11 (2) AufenthG.
167. § 258 StGB.
168. Id. Incidentally, it would make an interesting empirical study to find out how far the prosecution makes use of these special responsibilities.
169. § 60a (3) AufenthG.
170. § 55 AuslG (old) - § 60a (2) AufenthG. Bundeskriminalamt, Lagebild Menschenhandel 16 (2002).
171. See also Bundesamt für Arbeit, Erlass of 29 May 2001, Az. IIa7-51/45.
172. Bundeskriminalamt, BKA, a federal police force.
173. See also LKA NRW, Lagebild Menschenhandel Nordrhein-Westfalen 27 (2002).
174. BKA, Lagebild Menschenhandel 21 (2001) The example is quoted of a woman who returned to Germany to give evidence who was seriously threatened and attacked.
175. It may be added that she was prepared to act as witness in new criminal proceedings in spite of the likelihood of being expelled again afterwards, LKA NRW, Lagebild Menschenhandel Nordrhein- Westfalen 24, 29 (2002).
176. No. 53.6.1 of the Guidelines (Allgemeine Verwaltungsvorschriften zum Ausländerrecht), Bundesanzeiger, Beilage Nr. 188a of 6 October 2000.
177. Cf. Answer to a Parliamentary Question "Menschenhandel in Deutschland", BT-Drs. 15/2065, p. 4.
178. See § 1 Asylum Applicants' Benefits Act (Asylbewerberleistungsgesetz), BGBl. 1997 I, p. 2022, providing that asylum applicants, foreigners under a tolerance permit, foreigners whose deportation has to be stayed for humanitarian reasons, spouses and minor children have a right to benefits, provided they to not have a right to stay longer than six months.
179. In the Land of Northrhine-Westphalia, eight women were placed in witness protection programmes in 2002, LKA NRW, Lagebild Menschenhandel Nordrhein-Westfalen 25 (2002).
180. § 30 AuslG (old) - §§ 23a, 24 (4), 25, 60 AufenthG.
181. The duty to leave the country, in principle, persists.
182. §§ 24 (4), 23a, 25, 60 AufenthG.
183. § 60 (5) AufenthG.
184. According to § 60a (2) AufenthG.
185. Zeugenschutz.
186. § 170 (2) StPO. ROXIN, STRAFVERFAHRENSRECHT § 14 B II (25th ed. 1998); BEULKE, STRAFPROZESSRECHT para. 333 (2nd ed. 1996).
187. §§ 153c, 154b StPO.
188. § 154b (3) StPO.
189. Principle of immediacy, § 250 StPO.
190. §§ 180b, 181 StGB.
191. § 60a (2) AufenthG; BKA, Lagebild Menschenhandel 16 (2002).
192. § 251 (2) StPO.
193. BGH, 9 NStZ-RR 233 (2004) dismissed an appeal on points of law. The appeal challenged a conviction on the grounds that absent witnesses, the whereabouts of whom were not known, were not heard. The court held that this did not vilify the conviction as the read-out statements were only used in so far as supported by other evidence. See also BGH, judgment of 2 July 2002, 1 StR 135/02; and judgment of 30 July 2002, 1 StR 82/02 in which a witness could not be found in Poland and a conviction for rape could not be obtained, especially since the original statement was not recorded and could only be introduced into the proceedings by summoning the original interviewer.
194. in the context of the rights of defence under Art. 6 (1) ECHR.
195. § 244 (5) 2nd sentence StPO.
196. § 247a StPO, Statute of 30 April 1998, BGBl. 1998 I, p. 820. Cf. BGH, judgment of 18 May 2000, StR 647/99, 46 BGHSt 73 = 53 NJW 2517 (2000); judgment of 23 March 2000, 1 StR 657/99, 20 NStZ 385 (2000).
197. § 66b StPO.
198. BGH, 9 NStZ-RR 233 (2004).
199. § 395 StPO.
200. §§ 180b, 181 StGB.
201. BGBl. 1998 I, p. 820.
202. § 406g StPO.
203. §§ 403 ff. StPO, so-called adhesion procedure.
204. A statute (Second Victim Protection Act, BT-Drs. 15/814 of 8 April 2003) passed by the Bundesrat on
205. May 2004 is intended to make the compenzation of victims in criminal proceedings easier by restricting the possibilities to refuse such applications.
206. See, e.g., BGH, 9 NStZ-RR 233 (2004).
207. Statute of 7 January 1985 as amended on 6 December 2000, BGBl. 1985 I, p. 1, 2000 I, p. 1676.
208. BGH, 45 NJW 2557 (1992); now departing from this in 55 NJW 1885 (2002), referring to a change in morality; Christian Armbrüster, Zivilrechtliche Folgen des Gesetzes zur Regelung der Rechtsverhältnisse der Prostituierten, 55 NJW 2763 (2002).
209. See, e.g., Brigitte Kelker, Die Situation von Prostituierten im Strafrecht und ein freiheitliches Rechtsverständnis, KRITISCHE VIERTELJAHRESSCHRIFT FÜR RECHTSWISSENSCHAFT 289 (1993).
210. Heinrichs, in Palandt, § 138, Anh., para. 2; Armbrüster, 55 NJW 2763, 2764, and 2765 (2002); Cf. BGH
211. Similar Alt/Fodor, p. 101 f.
212. LKA NRW, Lagebild Menschenhandel Nordrhein-Westfalen, p. 29 (2002).