Compromise or Commitment: Human Rights and International Humanitarian Law Obligations for UN Peace Forces

Leiden Journal of International Law

Volumn 11, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 229-245

  Zwanenburg, Marten ^a  

^a LEIDEN UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

human rights; International Humanitarian Law; UN peace enforcement operations; UN peacekeeping forces

Indexed keywords

EID: 84966674235     PISSN: 09221565     EISSN: 14789698     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S092215659800017X     Document Type: Article

References (79)

1. R. Omaar & A. de Waal, Somalia; Human Rights Abuses by the United Nadons Forccs 12 (1993).
2. See, e.g., E. Kadjar-Ilamouda, An End to Silence; A Preliminary Study on Sexual Violence, Abuse and IZxploitation of Children Affected by Armed Conlliol !3 (ITOS); E. Schade, Iixperi enccs With Regard to the United Nations Pcacc-kccping Forces in Mozambique 9 (1996); C. Farnsworth, Canadian Shock Troops: Elite Corps Disbanded After Abuses Disclosed, New York Times, 9 January 1995; and Amnesty International, Peacekeeping and Human Rights 22-24 (1994).
3. 1949 Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed horces m the hield, 75 UNTS 31 (1950); 1949 Geneva Convention for me Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of the Armed Forccs at Sea, 75 UNTS 85 (1950); 1949 Geneva Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, 75 UNTS 135 (1950); and 1949 Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons m lime of War, 75 UN I S 2H7 (lysO).
4. 1977 fJeneva Protocol 1 Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts; and 1977 Geneva Protocol TI Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims ol Non-lnternational Armed Conflicts, IS ILM (1977), at 1391 and 1442, respectively.
5. ! 966 Intemationai Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 999 LINTS 171.
6. See B. Boutros-Ghali, An Agenda for Peace, UN Doc. S/24111 (1992), at 10
7. M. Bothe, Peacekeeping, in B. Simma (Ed.), The Charter of the United Nations: A Commentary 565, at 593 (1994).
8. See B. Boutrous-Ghati, Supplement to An Agenda for Peace, UN Doc. S/1995/1 (1995), at 7 and 18.
9. Sec D. Schraga & R. Zacklin, The Applicability of International HumanUahan Law to United Nations Peacekeeping Operations: Conceptual, Legal and Practical Issues, In U, Palwankar (Ed.), Report of the Symposium on Humanitarian Action and Peace-Keeping Operations 39, at 40(1994).
10. See on the situation between Iraq and Kuwait, UN Docs. S/Res/665 and S/Res/678 (1990), at 21 and 21 respectively.
11. A. DOrcnberg, Legal Aspects of Peace-Keeping Operations, 28 Revue de Droit MiSitaire et de Droit de la Guerre 117, at 157 (1989).
12. See, e.g., Forcc Regulations for ONUC, UN Doc, ST/SGB/ONUC/1 (1963), para. 5(b); and the Status Agreement for UNbh 1, UN Uoc, A/J526 (1957), Part II, para. 23.
13. Reparation tor Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations, Advisory Opinion of 11 April 1949, 1949 ICJ. Rep. 174, al 178-179.
14. Principally in Arts, f, 13, and 55.
15. See H. Kelscn, The Law of the United Nations 40 (1950). But see E. Lautcrpacht, International Law and Human Rights 145-154 (1950).
16. 16-See J.A. Barberis, Les Re.:olutiom de.i Organisation)! Internationales en tant que Source du Droit des Gens, in U. Beyerlin et ai. (Eds.), Recht zwischen Umbruch und Bewahrung 21, at 21 et seq. (1995).
17. See Reparation for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations, Les Re.:olutiom de.i Organisation)! Internationales en tant que Source du Droit des Gens note 13, at 179.
18. I'his follows from Art. 34 of the 1986 Vienna Convention on Treaties Between Slates and International Organizations and Between International Organizations, 25 ILM 543, at 564 (1986), wiiich is generally regarded as reflecting customary law.
19. See Section 4, infra.
20. See L. Sohn, The New International Law: Proteclion of the Rights of Individuals Rather Than States, 32 American University Law Review I, at 17 (1982).
21. See Reparations for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations, Advisory Opinion, The New International Law: Proteclion of the Rights of Individuals Rather Than States note 13, at 180.
22. See Art. 4(2) ICCPR, Reparations for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations note 5; and Art. 15(2) of the 1950 liuropean Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedom, 213 UNTS 221 (S955).
23. Reparations for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations, Advisory Opinion,Art. 4(2) ICCPR note 13, at 179 (emphasis added).
24. UN Doc. S/RiiS/237 (14 June 1967), preambular para. 2
25. See B. Simma & P. Alston, The Sources of Human Rights Law: Custom, Jus Cogem, and General Principles, 12 Australian Yearbook of Intemational Law 82, at 85 (1992).
26. See ‘1’. Meron, Human Rights and Humanitarian Norms as Customary Law 96-97 and 134 (1989).
27. Id., at 46. See also V. van Dongen, The Protection of Civilian Populations in Time of Armed Conflict (1991); and Military and Paramilitary Activities in and Against Nicaragua (Nicaragua V. United States of America), Merits, Judgment of 27 June 1986, 1986 ICJ Rep. 14, at 113, para. 218.
28. See A. Bleckmann, Zur Verbindlichkeit des Algemeinen Volkerrechts Jur Internationale Organi-sationen, 37 ZaoRV 107, at 109 (1977).
29. See C. Amerasinghe, Principles of the Institutional Law of International Organizations 19 (1996).
30. See Simina & Alston, Principles of the Institutional Law of International Organizations note 27, at 104
31. See Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Albania), Merits, Judgment of 9 April 1949, 1949 ICJ Rep. 4, at 22.
32. Military and Paramilitary Activities in and Against Nicaragua, Corfu Channel note 29, at 114, para. 218.
33. United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran (United States of America v. Iran), Merits, Judgment of 24 May 1980, 1980 ICJ Rep. 3, at 42.
34. See American Law Institute, Restatement (Third) Foreign Relations Law of the United States, Vol. 2, at 161 (1987).
35. See L. Suy, Papers and Proceedings of the Lagonissi Conference 9 (1967)
36. See, e.g., T. van Boven, Survey of the Positive International Law of Human Rights, in K. Vasak (Ed.), The International Dimensions of Human Rights 87, at 107 (1992); and H. Mosler, The International Society as a Legal Community 139 (1980).
37. W. Meng, Internationale Organixatinnen im viilkerrechtlichen Delikstrecht, 45 ZaoRV 324, at 356 (1985).
38. Some writers are of the opinion that damage is another element. 11 is submitted, however, that damage is inherent in any violation of human rights or humanitarian law.
39. See B. Amrallah, The International Responsibility of the UN for Activities Carried out by Peacekeeping Forces, 32 Revue Egyptienne de Droit International 56, at 73-74 (1976).
40. See Bothe, The International Responsibility of the UN for Activities Carried out by Peacekeeping Forces note 7, at 600
41. In the case of peace enforcement operations, SOI-As are generally not concluded as consent of the host state is not a prerequisite.
42. See Bother the case of peace enforcement operations note 7, at 596.
43. See, e.g., UN Doc. A/46/IS5 (1991) and UN Doc. A/45/594 (1990).
44. See. e.g., Force Regulations for UNEFI, UN Doc. ST/SGB/UNEF/1 of 20 February 1957, para. 29; and ONUC Force Regulations, UN Doc. ST/SGB/ONUC/1 of 15 July 1963, para. 24.
45. See LIN Doc. A/45/594 (1990), para, 6.
46. See VNEF I Force Regulations, para. 34(c), and ONUC Force Regulations, para. 29(c), LIN Doc. A/45/594 note 46.
47. See H. Risse, Dos Verhdltnis der UN-Truppen zu den Vereinten Nationen, 2u den Entsende-und Aufnahmeslaaten, in E, Koch (Ed.), Die Blauhelme itn Einsatz fur den Frieden 52, at 55 (1991).
48. See Bothe, Dos Verhdltnis der UN-Truppen zu den Vereinten Nationen note 7, at 597.
49. See [nstitut Quebecols des Hautes Etudes Internationales, 2 Bulletin (April 1996), http;//www.u!aval.ca/iqhei/bulletin2.htm. See also P. de Graaf, Belgische para's weer beticht van wange-drag, dc Volkskrant, 3 April 1997, at 6.
50. See UNEF I Force Regulations, para. 44; and ONUC Force Regulations, para, 43, [nstitut Quebecols des Hautes Etudes Internationales note 44.
51. Cf. 1966 Agreement Between the United Nations and Sweden Relating to the Swcdisch Contingent to the United Nations Force in Cyprus, para. 11, reproduced in F. Seyersted, United Nations Forces in the Law of Peace and War 445 (1966).
52. See United Nations Juridical Yearbook, UN Doc. ST/l.EG/SER.C/10 (1972), at 153; and Shraga & Zacklin, Cf. 1966 Agreement Between the United Nations and Sweden Relating to the Swcdisch Contingent to the United Nations Force in Cyprus note 9, at 43.
53. Sec Glick, Lip Service to the Laws of War: Humanitarian Law and United Nations Armed Forces, 17 Michigan Journal of International Law 53, at 74 (1995).
54. See 1994 Convention on the Safety of United Nations Associated Personnel, 34 ILM 484, at 492.
55. See K. Lo-Fo-Wong, Toepasselijkheid verdragen ter bescherming Verenigde Naties-personeel bij operaties van de Verenigde Naties, 40 Militair Rechteiijk Tijdschrift 37, at 39 (1997).
56. See A. Bouvier, Convenlion on the Safety of United Nations and Associated Personnel: Presentation and Analysts, International Review of the Rod Cross 638, at 666 (1995)
57. See ONUMOZ Report as cited in Schade, Convenlion on the Safety of United Nations and Associated Personnel: Presentation and Analysts note 2, at 16.
58. See Amnesty Internationai, ONUMOZ Report as cited in Schade note 2, at 37.
59. See UN Ch arter, preambul ar para. 4.
60. See UN Department of Peat;ckeeping Operations (DPKO) Training Unit, Ten Ruies; Code of Personal Conduct for Blue Helmets (1997), Art, 4.
61. Id.
62. See Comprehensive review of the whole question oi'peace-keeping operations in all their aspects, ICRC Statement to the 51st session of the General Assembly, Agenila Item 86 of 18 November 1996.
63. See ICRC Press Release of 15 May 1996, UN-TCRC: Guidelines for UN Forccs, http://ww-w/icrc/org/unicc/icrcnews.nsf
64. Interview with an ICRC official conducted by the author, 20 August 1997.
65. See UN Dot.-S/6597 (1965), cited in Amraliah, Interview with an ICRC official conducted by the author note 41, at 72.
66. See Amraliah, UN Dot.-S/6597 note 41, at 72.
67. E g. in Korea and in the Gulf.
68. See Amerasinghe, E g. in Korea and in the Gulf. note 31, at 242-243.
69. See UNEFl SOFA, Report of Ihe Secretary General on Arrangements Concerning the Status of the LIN F.mergency Force in Egypt, UN Doc. A/3526 (1957), para. 12(a)yo. 38(b) (i-ii). See also Model SOFA, UN Doc. A/45/594, (1990), para. 49(a) jo-51. Amraliah mentions a simitar arrangement for UNFICVP. See Amraliah, E g. in Korea and in the Gulf. note 31 note 41, at 78.
70. See M, Hirsch, The Responsibility of International Organisations Toward Third Parties: Some Basic Principles 69-70 (1995).
71. See Dr R. S. Lee, Remarks at the Eleventh Annual Seminar on International Humanitarian L,aw for Diplomats Accredited to the United Nations (20 January 1994), cited by Glick, The Responsibility of International Organisations Toward Third Parties: Some Basic Principles note 55, at 68.
72. See R. Sickmann, Juridische Aspeclen van de Deelname met Nalionale Contingenien am VN-Vredesmachten 170 (1988).
73. See UN Doc. A/45/594 (1990), para. 47(b).
74. De Graaf, UN Doc. A/45/594 note 51, at 6.
75. See UN Doc. &/S597 (1965 J, supm note 6/.
76. See H.-P. Gasser, Die Anwendbarkeit des humamtdren Volkerrechts auf milildnsche Opera-tionen der Vereinten Nationen, 4 Schweizerische Zeitschrift tUr intemalionalcs und europais-chcs Recht 443, at 454 (1994).
77. /y, Hee Amnesty International, Die Anwendbarkeit des humamtdren Volkerrechts auf milildnsche Opera-tionen der Vereinten Nationen note 2, at 37.
78. See 1993 Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, UN Doc. S/RES/827 (1993); and 1994 Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, UN Doc, S/RES/955 (1994), Annex.
79. See, e.g., Art. 4 of the Statute of the Kwaiiaa Tritjuna), 1993 Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia note 80, at 16.