Language rights as cultural rights: A European perspective

International Studies in Human Rights

Volumn 95, Issue , 2008, Pages 247-284

  Mancini, Susanna ^a   De Witte, Bruno ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 84966661187     PISSN: 09244751     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (87)

1. Human Rights Committee, 47th session, Communications Nos. 359/1989 and 385/1989, John Ballantyne and Elizabeth Davidson, and Gordon McIntyre v. Canada, views adopted on 31 March 1993, para. 11.4.
2. For an elaboration of the argument that freedom of expression includes the freedom to express oneself in the language of one's choice, see F. de Varennes, 'Language and Freedom of Expression in International Law', Human Rights Quarterly (1994) 163.
3. On the linguistic dimension of educational rights, see the comparative law study by A. Milian i Massana, Derechos linguisticos y derecho fundamental a la educación (1994).
4. Generally, on the contribution of general fundamental rights to minority protection, see K. Henrard, Devising an Adequate System of Minority Protection. Individual Human Rights, Minority Rights and the Right to Self-Determination (2000), chapter II.
5. R. Rubio Marin, 'Language Rights: Exploring the Competing Rationales', in W. Kymlicka and A. Patten, Language Rights and Political Theory (2003) 52, at 63. This author proposes the term 'instrumental language rights' to describe this category, as opposed to non-instrumental language rights which protect the use of languages for its own sake.
6. On some of the interpretative puzzles raised by this Article 22, see Y. Donders, 'The Protection of Cultural Rights in Europe: None of the EU's Business?', Maastricht Journal of European and Comparative Law (2003) 117, at pp. 142-144.
7. We thus adopt a rather restrictive, but legally operational, view of the distinction between individual and collective rights, which is based on who is the formal beneficiary of the right. This corresponds, for example, to the view exposed in J. Ringelheim, 'Droits individuels et droits collectifs: avenir d'une équivoque', in E. Bribosia et L. Hennebel (dir), Classer les droits de l'homme (2004) 231, at p. 231.
8. R. Dunbar, 'Minority Language Rights in International Law', International and Comparative Law Quarterly (2001) 90, at p. 119.
9. E. Hobsbawm Nation and Nationalism since 1780: Programme, Myth and Reality (1990).
10. W. Kymlicka. (ed.), The Rights of Minorities Cultures (1995).
11. M. Walzer (1994), quoted by S. Tierney, Constitutional Law and National Pluralism (2004).
12. G. Koubi, Droit et minorités dans la République française, in A. Fenet (ed), Le droit et les minorités. Analyses et textes (1995) at. 200.
13. A. D. Smith, The Ethnic Origins of Nations (1986).
14. V. Delaporte, 'La loi relative à l'emploi de la langue française', in Revue critique de droit international privé, (1976). 448.
15. For a critical reconstruction of the myth accordingto which French Republicanism has always been hostile to minority languages see J. Ziller, Le droit français de la langue, entre les mythes d'une tradition interventionniste et la réalité de nouvelles angoisses, EUI Working Paper Law No. 2006/10.
16. See for example C. Taylor, The Politics of Recognition (1992).
17. M. Stipo, 'Minoranze etnico-linguistiche', Enciclopedia giuridica XX, (1990) p. 1.
18. Quoted by C. Ribičič, Constitutional Protection of National Minorities in Slovenia, paper presented at the World VI Congress of Constitutional Law, Santiago de Chile, 12-16 January 2004.
19. F. Palermo, Asymmetric, 'Quasi-Federal' Regionalism and the Protection of Minorities: The Case of Italy, in G. A. Tarr, R. F. Williams, J. Marko (eck), Federalism, Subnational Constitutions, and Minority Rights, Praeger, Westport, Connecticut, London, (2004), p. 121.
20. G. Poggeschi, Le nazioni linguistiche della Spagna autonomia (2002), p. 56 et seq.
21. R. Rubio-Marin, 'Exploring the Boundaries of Language Rights: Insiders, Newcomers and Natives', in S. Macedo, A. Buchanan (eds), Secession and Self-Determination (2003) p. 152.
22. S. Tierney, Constitutional Law and National Pluralism (2004), p. 329.
23. E. J. Ruiz Vieytez, 'Federalism, Subnational Constitutional Arrangements, and the Protection of Minorities in Spain', in G. A. Tarr R. F. Williams J. Marko (eck), Federalism, Subnational Constitutions, and Minority Rights, (2004) p. 150.
24. A. Milian Massana, 'Droits linguistiques et droits fondamentaux en Espagne', in Revue générale de droit, 23, p. 575.
25. M. Suksi, Älands Konstitution (2005) at 38 et seq.
26. D. Perrot, F. Miatti, 'Les Lapons et les Äland dans le quatrième élargissement. Contribution à l'étude de la différenciation juridique au sein de la Communauté Européenne', in Revue du Marché Commun et de l'Union européenne, 413, dec. (1997) 681.
27. C. J. Friedrich, Man and his Government. An Empirical Theory of Politics (1963), p. 597, n. 29.
28. G. Von Rausch, The Baltic States - Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania: The Years of Independence 1917-1940 (1974), p. 142.
29. On corporative federalism see E. McWhinney, Corporative Federalism, States' Rights and National Powers (1965).
30. M. Scheinin, Constitutional Coexistence: Minority Rights and Non-Discrimination under the New Finnish Constitution of 2000, in M. Scheinin, R. Toivanen (eck), Rethinking Non-Discrimination and Minority Rights (2004), p. 8.
31. See S. Pierré-Caps, 'Le principe de l'autonomie personnelle et l'aménagement constitutionnel du pluralisme national. L'exemple hongrois', in Revue de Droit Public, 1994, pp. 401 et seq.
32. F. Delpérée, Droits des minorités, droits de l'homme, in Les droits de l'homme au seuil du troisième millénaire, Mélanges en hommage à Pierre Lambert (2000), p. 312.
33. C.D. Tartlon, 'Symmetry and Asymmetry as Elements of Federalism: A Theoretical speculation', in Journal of Politics, 27, 1965, n. 4, pp. 868 ss.
34. A. Alen, P. Peeters, 'The Competences of the Communities in the Belgian Federal State: the Principle of Exclusivity Revisited', in European Public Law, 2, 1997, pp. 165 et seq.
35. W. Pas, A Dynamic Federalism Built on Static Principles: The Case of Belgium, in G. A. Tarr, R.F. Williams, J. Marko (eck), Federalism, Subnational Constitutions, and Minority Rights, (2004), p. 164.
36. On 'unwritten principles of constitutional law' as developed by the case law of the Federal Tribunal during the 1960s, see M. Rossinelli, Le libertés non écrites. Contribution à l'étude du pouvoir créateur du juge constitutionnel (1987). 54 DTF 911 480.
37. Morand, 'I diritti linguistici in Svizzera', in Le Regioni, (1987) p. 1362.
38. M. Rossinelli, 'La question linguistique en Suisse: bilan critique et nouvelles perspectives juridiques', in Rivista di diritto svizzero, (1989), p. 169.
39. Kymlicka-Opalski; in T.H. Malloy, (ed.) National Minority Rights in Europe, (2005) pp. 40-44.
40. M. Rooker, The Legal Situation of Slovakia's Minorities, in S. Trifunovska (ed.), Croatia, Estonia and Slovakia, cit., p. 178 ff.
41. E. Gdulewicz, M. Curie-Sklodowska, E. Poplawska, National Minorities in Poland, paper presented at the World Congress of Constitutional Law, Santiago de Chile, 10-17 January 2004.
42. The subsequent Law 'on the use of minority languages' of 11 July 1999 overcomes must of the shortcomings indicated by the European observers See the Report of the European Commission on Slovakia of 1998: , and also the report of the FCNM of 2000, which pints out how numerous provisions of the law of 1995 could produce discriminations against members of national minorities in relation to free speech and freedom of association.
43. .
44. See comment by A. Petricusic, 'Constitutional Law on the Rights of National Minorities in the Republic of Croatia, in European Yearbook on Minority Issues, Vol. 2, 2002/2003, p. 607-629.
45. .
46. The Statute of the Istrian County adopted on 30 October 1994 was the subject of a request by the Government of the Republic of Croatia to the Constitutional Court for an evaluation of the compatibility of 36 articles of the Statute with the Constitution. Passing its decision on 2 February 1995, the Constitutional Court repealed 18 articles of the Statute and rejected the request made by the Government for another 18 articles See comment by V. Piergigli, 'Lo statuto istriano e il bilinguismo al vaglio délie autorità croate', Quaderni costituzionali, n. 3, 2001, p. 630-632.
47. It would lead too far to examine in this paper the impact on European countries of the corresponding universal human rights instruments. Of particular relevance is Article 27 of the UN Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, on the significance of which, see for example: K. Henrard, Devising an Adequate System, cit., at p. 158 ff
48. F. de Varennes, Language, Minorities and Human Rights (1996), chapter 5
49. S. Ramu, 'Le statut des minorités au regard du Pacte international relatif aux droits civils et politiques', Revue trimestrielle des droits de l'homme (2002) 587.
50. The terms are borrowed from the title of G. Gilbert, 'The Burgeoning Minority Rights Jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights', Human Rights Quarterly (2002) 736.
51. European Court of Human Rights, judgment of 17 July 2001, Appl. 39288/98, Association Ekin v. France.
52. See the case comment by F. Julien-Laferrière, 'L'incompatibilité du régime des publications étrangères avec la Convention européenne des droits de l'homme', Actualité Juridique Droit Administratif (2002) 52.
53. Cyprus v. Turkey, judgment (Grand Chamber) of 10 May 2001, no. 25781/94, para. 278.
54. See further on this point, J. Ringelheim, Diversité culturelle et droits de l'homme. La protection des minorités par la Convention européenne des droits de l'homme (2006) at pp. 203-207.
55. Protocol no 12 to the European Convention, containing a general prohibition of discrimination, has entered into force only recently, in 2005, and has so far been ratified by only a dozen Member States of the Council of Europe, so that there is scope for interesting developments in this respect. See, for some reflections on the possible future impact of this Protocol, R. Wintemute, 'Filling the Article 14 "Gap": Government Ratification and Judicial Control of Protocol No. 12 ECHR, European Human Rights Law Review (2004) 484.
56. For accounts of the incipient monitoring practice under the Framework Convention, see R. Hoffmann, 'Protecting the Rights of National Minorities in Europe. First Experiences with the Council of Europe Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities', German Yearbook of International Law (2001) 237
57. G Pekari, 'Review of the Monitoring Process of the Council of Europe Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities', European Yearbook of Minority Issues (2003-2004) 347.
58. See also the earlier study by G. Pentassuglia, 'Monitoring Minority Rights in Europe: The Implementation Machinery of the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities - With Special Reference to the Role of the Advisory Committee', International Journal on Minority and Group Rights (1999) 417.
59. The literature on the monitoring of the Regional Languages Charter is more limited; see A. Bultrini, 'Developments in the Field of the European Charter for Regional or Minority languages: June 2003-June 2004', European Yearbook of Minority Issues (2003-2004) 377.
60. See for example the recent report of the Committee of Experts on Spain, of 21 September 2005, ECRML (2005) 4, which amounts to 170 pages of detailed analysis and recommendations addressed to the Spanish government. The impact of the Charter on Spanish law is examined by I. Agirreazkuenaga Zigorraga, 'La carta Europea de lenguas regionales o minoritarias del Consejo de Europa como derecho interno', in J.M. Pérez Fernández (coord.), Estudios sobre el estatuto jurídico de las lenguas en España (2006) 105.
61. There is a vast literature on this theme, including the following: G. Pentassuglia, 'The EU and the Protection of Minorities: The Case of Eastern Europe', European Journal of International Law (2001) 3
62. B. de Witte, 'Politics versus Law in the EU's Approach to Ethnic Minorities', in J. Zielonka (ed), Europe Unbound. Enlarging and Reshaping the Boundaries of the European Union (2002) 464
63. G. Sasse, 'Minority Rights and EU Enlargement: Normative Overstretch or Effective Conditionality?', in G.N. Toggenburg (ed), Minority Protection and the Enlarged European Union: The Way Forward (2004) 61.
64. See P. Fraisseix, 'La France, les langues régionales et la Charte européenne des langues régionales et minoritaires', Revue française de droit administratif (2001), 59.
65. This part of the paper draws on an earlier publication by one of the authors: B. de Witte, 'Language Law of the European Union: Protecting or Eroding Linguistic Diversity?', in R. Craufurd Smith (ed), Culture and European Union Law (2004) 205.
66. Recently, in 2005, the Council of the European Union decided that Member States could conclude administrative agreements with the various EU institutions in order to arrange for the use of regional languages in communications of these institutions with the citizenry. This results from a request by the Spanish government and is now being implemented, to a limited extent, for the benefit of Spain's regional official languages such as Catalan, Basque and Galician. However, these special arrangements do not provide for genuine rights to use those languages. See, for the details, F. Esteve Garcia, 'El nuevo estatuto juridico de las lenguas cooficiales en España ante la Unión Europea', Revista de Derecho Comunitario Europeo (2006) 439.
67. For more detailed analysis of the current language regime of the European Union, see among others: R. Creech, Law and Language in the European Union (2005) chapter 1
68. F. Mayer, 'Europäisches Sprachenverfassungsrecht', Der Staat (2005) 367
69. A. Milian-Massana, 'Le regime juridique du multilinguisme dans l'Union européenne. Le mythe ou la réalité du principe d'égalité des langues', Revue juridique Témis (2004) 211
70. A. de Elera-San Miguel Hurtado, 'Unión Europea y Multilingüismo', Revista española de Derecho Europeo (2004) 85
71. B. Nabli, 'Les implications de l'élargissement sur le multilinguisme institutionnel de l'Union européenne', Cahiers de droit européen (2004) 197.
72. C.F. Mancini and D.T. Keeling, 'Language, Culture and Politics in the Life of the European Court of Justice', Columbia Journal of European Law (1994/95) 1
73. L. Sevón, 'Languages in the Court of Justice of the European Communities', in Scritti in onore di Giuseppe Federico Mancini, Vol. II (1998), 934
74. G. Van Calster, 'The EU's Tower of Babel - The Interpretation by the European Court of Justice of Equally Authentic Texts Drafted in more than one Official Language', Yearbook of European Law (1997) 363.
75. Court of First Instance, Case T-120/99, Christina Kik v. Office for Harmonisation in the Internal Market (Trade Marks and Designs), judgment of 12 July 2001
76. in appeal: European Court of Justice, Case C-361/01 P, Christina Kik v. Office for Harmonisation in the Internal Market (Trade Marks and Designs), judgment of 9 September 2003.
77. For a recent case in which the general principle of equality was interpreted as a source of obligations for the Member States and for individual persons, see ECJ, Case C-144/04, Werner Mangold v. Rüdiger Helm, judgment of 22 November 2005. In this case, the ground of discrimination was age.
78. ECJ, Case 379/87, Groener v. Minister for Education and the Dublin Vocational Education Committee (1989) ECR 3967.
79. For a detailed analysis of the implications of the judgment, see N. Nic Shuibhne, EC Law and Minority Language Policy. Culture, Citizenship and Fundamental Rights (2002) at pp. 80-104.
80. See Commission Communication of 11 December 2002, Free Movement of Workers - Achieving the Full Benefits and Potential, COM (2002) 694, at p. 7: 'The Commission considers that while a very high level of language may, under certain strict conditions, be justifiable for certain jobs, a requirement to be mother tongue is not acceptable'.
81. ECJ, Case C-281/98, Angonese v. Cassa di Risparmio di Bolzano, judgment of 6 June 2000, [2000] ECR 1-4083.
82. See the comment by R. Lane and N. Nic Shuibhne, in Common Market Law Review (2000) 1237.
83. Council Directive 2000/43 implementing the principle of equal treatment between persons irrespective of racial or ethnic origin, OJ 2000, L 180/22. Third country nationals are within the personal scope of this directive, although only half-heartedly; see C. Brown, 'The Race Directive: Towards Equality for All the Peoples of Europe?', Yearbook of European Law (2001-2) 195, at pp. 209-212.
84. An example from practice is the decision of the Dutch Equal Treatment Commission (Commissie Gelijke Behandeling) of 28 March 2000. It held that the internal rules of firms that impose the use of Dutch as the language of communication among the workforce could be disproportional and therefore discriminatory. This is the case, for example, where no linguistic conditions have been formulated upon recruitment for the job (the text of the decision is on the web site of the CGB, ).
85. ECJ, Case 137/84, Ministère Public v. Mutsch, [1985] ECR 2681
86. Case C-274/96, Criminal proceedings against Horst Otto Bickel and Ulrich Franz, [ECR] 1998, 1-7650.
87. The second of these two Court cases, like the Angonese case (mentioned above) which was decided by the ECJ two years later, dealt with the complex language regime of the Italian province of South Tyrol. On the question of the EU-compatibility of South Tyrol language laws, see G. Toggenburg, 'Diritto comunitario e tutela delle minoranze in provincia di Bolzano. Due aspetti inconciliabili di un (unico) sistema?', in L'ordinamento speciale della Provincia autonoma di Bolzano (2001) 139.