Surgical hand antisepsis to reduce surgical site infection

Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews

Volumn 2016, Issue 1, 2016, Pages

  Tanner, Judith ^a   Dumville, Jo C ^b   Norman, Gill ^b   Fortnam, Mathew ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER   (United Kingdom)

^c UNIVERSITY OF YORK   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

2 PROPANOL; ALCOHOL; CHLORHEXIDINE GLUCONATE; HYDROGEN PEROXIDE; POVIDONE IODINE; PROPANOL; PYRITHIONE ZINC; TRICLOSAN; WATER; TOPICAL ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT;

ANTISEPSIS; AQUEOUS SOLUTION; BACTERIAL GROWTH; COLONY FORMING UNIT; COMPARATIVE STUDY; CROSSOVER PROCEDURE; HAND WASHING; HUMAN; INFECTION PREVENTION; META ANALYSIS; NONHUMAN; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PUBLICATION; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); REVIEW; SURGICAL HAND ANTISEPSIS; SURGICAL INFECTION; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; BACTERIAL COUNT; GENERAL SURGERY; HAND; MICROBIOLOGY; PROCEDURES; SURGICAL WOUND INFECTION;

ANTI-INFECTIVE AGENTS, LOCAL; ANTISEPSIS; COLONY COUNT, MICROBIAL; GENERAL SURGERY; HAND; HAND DISINFECTION; HUMANS; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIALS AS TOPIC; SURGICAL WOUND INFECTION;

EID: 84966373205     PISSN: None     EISSN: 1469493X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004288.pub3     Document Type: Review

References (192)

1. Al-Naami MY, Anjum MN, Afzal MF, Al-Yami MS, Al-Qahtani SM, Al-Dohayan AD, et al. Alcohol-based hand-rub versus traditional surgical scrub and the risk of surgical site infection: a randomized controlled equivalent trial. EWMA Journal 2009;9(3):5-10.
2. Furukawa K, Tajiri T, Sudzuki H, Norose Y. Are sterile water and brushes necessary for hand washing before surgery in Japan?. Journal of Nippon Medical School 2005;72(3):149-54.
3. Gupta C, Czubatyj AM, Briski LE, Malani AK. Comparison of two alcohol-based surgical scrub solutions with an iodine-based brush for presurgical antiseptic effectiveness in a community hospital. Journal of Hospital Infection 2007;65(1):65-71.
4. Hajipour L, Longstaff C, Cleeve V, Brewster N, Bint D, Henman P. Hand washing rituals in trauma theatre: clean or dirty?. Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons of England 2006;88(1):13-5.
5. Herruzo Cabrera R, Vizcaino Alcaide MJ, Fdez Acinero MJ. Usefulness of an alcohol solution of N-duopropenide for the surgical antisepsis of the hands compared with handwashing with iodine povidone and chlorhexidine. Journal of Surgical Research 2000;94(1):6-12.
6. Kappstein I, Schulgen G, Waninger J, Daschner F. Microbiological and economic studies of abbreviated procedures for surgical hand disinfection [Mikrobiologische und okonomische Untersuchungen uber verkurzte Verfahen fur die chirurgische Handedesinfektion]. Der Chirurg 1993;64(5):400-5.
7. Nthumba PM, Stepita-Poenaru E, Poenaru D, Bird P, Allegranzi B, Pittet D, et al. Cluster-randomized, crossover trial of the efficacy of plain soap and water versus alcohol-based rub for surgical hand preparation in a rural hospital in Kenya. British Journal of Surgery 2010;97(11):1621-8.
8. Parienti JJ, Thibon P, Heller R, Le Roux Y, Theobald P, Bensadoun H, et al. Hand-rubbing with an aqueous alcoholic solution vs traditional surgical hand-scrubbing and 30-day surgical site infection rates. JAMA 2002;288(6):722-7.
9. Pereira LJ, Lee GM, Wade KJ. The effect of surgical handwashing routines on the microbial counts of operating room nurses. American Journal of Infection Control 1990;18(6):354-64.
10. Pereira LJ, Lee GM, Wade KJ. An evaluation of five protocols for surgical handwashing in relation to skin condition and microbial counts. Journal of Hospital Infection 1997;36(1):49-65.
11. Pietsch H. Hand antiseptics: rubs versus scrubs, alcoholic solutions versus alcoholic gels. Journal of Hospital Infection 2001;48(Suppl A):S33-6.
12. Tanner J, Khan D, Walsh S, Chernova J, Lamont S, Laurent T. Brushes and picks used on nails during the surgical scrub to reduce bacteria: a randomised trial. Journal of Hospital Infection 2009;71(3):234-8.
13. Vergara-Fernandez O, Morales-Olivera JM, Ponce-de-Leon-Rosales S, Vega-Batista R, Mejfa-Ovaile R, Huertas-Jimenez M. Surgical team satisfaction levels between two preoperative hand-washing methods [Niveles de satisfacción del equipo quirúrgico entre dos métodos de lavado de mano]. Revista de Investigación Clínica 2010;62(6):532-7.
14. Wheelock SM, Lookinland S. Effect of surgical hand scrub time on subsequent bacterial growth. AORN Journal 1997;65(6):1087-98.
15. Adjoussou S, Konan Blé R, Séni K, Fanny M, Toure-Ecra A, Koffi A, et al. Value of hand disinfection by rubbing with alcohol prior to surgery in a tropical setting [Intérêt de la désinfection chirugicale des mains par friction alcoolique en milieu tropical]. Médicine Tropicale 2009;69(5):463-6.
16. Aly R, Maibach HI. Comparative evaluation of chlorhexidine gluconate and povidone-iodine sponge/brushes for presurgical hand scrubbing. Current Therapeutic Research 1983;34(4):740-5.
17. Aly R, Maibach HI. Comparative antibacterial efficacy of a 2 minute surgical scrub with chlorhexidine gluconate, povidone-iodine, and chloroxylenol brushes. American Journal of Infection Control 1988;16(4):173-7.
18. Aly R, Bayles C, Bibel DJ, Maibach HI, Orsine CA. Clinical efficacy of a chlorous acid preoperative skin antiseptic. American Journal of Infection Control 1998;26(4):406-12.
19. Ararat T, Murakami T, Hirai Y. Evaluation of povidone iodine alcoholic solution for operative site disinfection. Postgraduate Medical Journal 1993;69(Suppl 3):S93-6.
20. Ayliffe GAJ. Surgical scrub and skin disinfection. Infection Control 1984;5(1):23-7.
21. Ayliffe GAJ, Babb JR, Davies JG, Lilly HA. Hand disinfection: a comparison of various agents in laboratory and ward studies. Journal of Hospital Infection 1988;11(3):226-43.
22. Ayliffe GAJ, Babb JR, Davies JG, Newsom SWB, Rowland C, Platt JH, et al. Hygienic hand disinfection tests in three laboratories. Journal of Hospital Infection 1990;16(2):141-9.
23. Babb JR, Davies JG, Ayliffe GAJ. A test procedure for evaluating surgical hand disinfection. Journal of Hospital Infection 1991;18(Suppl B):41-9.
24. Bansal BC, Wiebe RA, Perkins SD, Abramo TJ. Tap water for irrigation of lacerations. American Journal of Emergency Medicine 2002;20(5):469-72.
25. Barsanti MC, Woeltje KF. Infection prevention in the Intensive Care Unit. Infectious Diseases Clinics of North America 2009;23(3):703-25.
26. Bartzokas CA, Gibson MF, Graham R, Pinder DC. A comparison of triclosan and chlorhexidine preparations with 60% isopropyl alcohol for hygienic hand disinfection. Journal of Hospital Infection 1983;4(3):245-55.
27. Bearman G, Rosato AE, Duane TM, Elam K, Sanogo K, Haner C, et al. Trial of universal gloving with emollient-impregnated gloves to promote skin heath and prevent the transmission of multidrug-resistant organisms in a surgical intensive care unit. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 2010;31(5):491-7.
28. Beeuwkes H, De Rooij SH. Microbiological tests on operating theatre staff of a new disinfectant foam based on 1% chlorhexidine gluconate. Journal of Hospital Infection 1986;8(2):200-2.
29. Bendig JWA. Surgical hand disinfection: comparison of 4% chlorhexidine detergent solution and 2% triclosan detergent solution. Journal of Hospital Infection 1990;15(2):143-8.
30. Berman M. One hospital's clinical evaluation of brushless scrubbing. AORN Journal 2004;79(2):349-358.
31. Bibbo C, Patel DV, Gehrmann RM, Lin SS. Chlorhexidine provides superior skin decontamination in foot and ankle surgery. Clinical Orthopeadics and Related Research 2005;438:204-8.
32. Blomgreng, Hambraeus A, Malmborg AS. The influence of the total body exhaust suit on air and wound contamination in elective hip operations. Journal of Hospital Infection 1983;4(3):257-68.
33. Borer A, Gilad J, Meydan N, Riesenberg K, Schlaeffer F, Alkan M, et al. Impact of active monitoring of infection control practices on deep sternal infection after open-heart surgery. Annals of Thoracic Surgery 2001;72(2):515-20.
34. Boyce JM. Using alcohol for hand antisepsis: dispelling old myths. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 2000;21(7):438-41.
35. Boyce JM, Kelliher S, Vallande. Skin irritation and dryness associated with two hand hygiene regimens: soap and water hand washing versus hand antisepsis with an alcoholic hand gel. Infection Control and Epidemiology 2000;21(7):442-8.
36. Braumann C, Pirlich M, Menenakos C, Lochs H, Mueller JM. Implementation of the clean and close concept for treatment of surgical and chronic wounds in three university centres in Berlin-Germany. EWMA Journal 2008;8(2 Suppl):41. Abstract no. 44.
37. Breeze W. It is time to standardize surgical hand scrubs?. AORN Journal 1994;60(2):294-306.
38. Brooks RA, Hollinghurst D, Ribbans WJ, Severn M. Bacterial recolonisation during foot surgery. Foot and Ankle International 2001;22(4):347-50.
39. Bruckner M, Wild T, Schwarz C, Payrich M, Eberlein T. Autolytic wound cleansing potential of different cellulose-based dressings. EWMA Journal 2009;9(2):170, Abstract P146.
40. Bryce EA, Spence D, Roberts FJ. An in-use evaluation of an alcohol-based pre-surgical hand disinfectant. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 2001;22(10):635-40.
41. Caelli M, Porteous J, Carson CF, Heller R, Riley TV. Tea tree oil as an alternative topical decolonization agent for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Journal of Hospital Infection 2000;46(3):236-7.
42. Carro C, Camilleri L, Traore O, Badrikian L, Legauly B, Azarnoush K, et al. An in-use microbiological comparison of two surgical hand disinfection techniques in cardiothoracic surgery: hand rubbing versus hand scrubbing. Journal of Hospital Infection 2007;67(1):62-6.
43. Cheng SM, Garcia M, Espin S, Conly J. Literature review and survey comparing surgical scrub techniques. AORN Journal 2001;74(2):218-24.
44. Coelho JCU, Lerner H, Murad I. The influence of the surgical scrub on hand bacterial flora. International Surgery 1984;69(4):305-7.
45. Cremieux A, Reverdy ME, Pons JL, Savage C, Chevalier J, Fleurette J, et al. Standardised method for evaluation of hand disinfection by surgical scrub formulations. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 1989;55(11):2944-8.
46. Crowder VH, Welsh JS, Bornside GH, Cohn I. Bacterial comparison of hexachlorophen and polyvinylpyrrolideone iodine surgical scrub soaps. The American Surgeon 1967;33(11):906-11.
47. Culligan PJ, Kubik K, Murphy M, Blackwell L, Snyder J. A randomised trial that compared povidone iodine and chlorhexidine as antiseptics for vaginal hysterectomy. Americal Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 2005;192(2):422-5.
48. Curti Junior A, Pagani C. Use of chemical agents germ hand, germekil, savlon and valmicid GI in disinfection of rubber dam as an integral part of total isolation of the surgical field [O uso dos agentes químicos germ hand, germekil instrumental, savlon e valmicid GI na desinfecção do lencol de borracha odontológico como parte integrante do isolamento absoluto do campo operatório]. Ars curandi Em Odontologia 1974;1(3):56-60.
49. Da Cunha ER, De Oliveira Azevedo Matos FG, Da Silva AM, De Araujo EAC, Ferreira KA, Graziano KU. The efficacy of three hand asepsis techniques using chlorhexidine gluconate (CHG 2%) [Eficácia de três métodos de degermação das mãos utilizando Gluconato de clorexidina degermante (GCH 2%)]. Revista da Escola de Enfermagem da USP 2011;45(6):1440-5.
50. Dahl J, Wheeler B, Muhkerjee D. Effect of chlorhexidine scrub on postoperative bacterial counts. American Journal of Surgery 1990;159(5):486-8.
51. Das JKL, Sharma SN, Prasad MK, Tiwari S, Singh UN, Kolhapure SA. Evaluation of the efficacy and safety of "pure hands" in hand hygiene: a prospective, randomized, double blind, placebo-controlled, phase III clinical trial. Indian Practitioner 2005;58(5):275-82.
52. De Castro Peraza ME, Garzon Rodriguez E, Rodriguez Perez V, Sosa Alvarez I, Gutierrez Hernandez J, Asianin Ugarte C. Glove perforation in surgery and protective effect of double gloves [Incidencia de la perforación de los guantes en cirugía y efecto protector del doble guante]. Enfermeria Clínica 2010;20(2):73-9.
53. Demir F. A survey on prevention of surgical infections in operating theatres. Worldviews on Evidence-Based Nursing 2009;6(2):102-13.
54. Deshmukh N, Kramer JW. A comparison of 5 minute povidone iodine scrub and 1 minute povidone iodine scrub followed by alcohol foam. Military Medicine 1998;163(3):145-7.
55. Dineen P. An evaluation of the duration of the surgical scrub. Surgery, Gynecology and Obstetrics 1969;129(6):1181-4.
56. Dineen P. Hand-washing degerming: a comparison of povidone-iodine and chlorhexidine. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapies 1978;23(1):63-7.
57. Dohmen PM. Influence of skin flora and preventive measures on surgical site infection during cardiac surgery. Surgical Infections 2006;7(Suppl 1):S13-7.
58. Durani P, Leaper D. Povidone-iodine: use in hand disinfection, skin preparation and antiseptic irrigation. International Wound Journal 2008;5(3):376-87.
59. Elenbaas RM, McNabney WK, Robinson WA. Prophylactic oxacillin in dog bite wounds. Annals of Emergency Medicine 1982;11(5):248-51.
60. Ellenhorn JD, Smith DD, Schwartz RE, Kawachi MH, Wilson TG, McGonigle KF, et al. Paint-only is equivalent to scrub and paint in preoperative preparation of abdominal surgery. Journal of the American College of Surgeons 2005;201(5):737-41.
61. Faogali J, Fong J, George N, Mahoney P, O'Rourke V. Comparison of the immediate residual and cumulative antibacterial effects of Novaderm R, Novascrub R, Betadine Surgical Scrub, Hibiclens and liquid soap. American Journal of Infection Control 1995;23(6):337-43.
62. Ford, HR, Jones P, Gaines B, Reblock K, Simpkins DL. Intraoperative handling and wound healing: controlled clinical trial comparing coated VICRYL plus antibacterial suture (coated polyglactin 910 suture iwth triclosan) with coated VICRYL suture (coated polyglactin 910 suture). Surgical Infections 2005;6(3):313-21.
63. Grabsch EA, Mitchell DJ, Hooper J, Turnidge JD. In-use efficacy of a chlorhexidine in alcohol surgical rub: a comparative study. Australia and New Zealand Journal of Surgery 2004;74(9):769-72.
64. Grinbaum RS, De Mendonca JS, Cardo DM. An outbreak of hand scrubbing related surgical site infections in vascular surgical procedures. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 1995;16(4):198-202.
65. Gruendemann BJ, Bjerke NB. Is it time for brushless scrubbing with an alcohol based agent?. AORN Journal 2001;74(6):859-73.
66. Guilhermetti M, Hernandes SE, Fukushigue Y, Garcia LB, Cardoso CL. Effectiveness of hand-cleaning agents for removing methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus from contaminated hands. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 2001;22(2):105-8.
67. Hagen KS, Treston Aurand J. A comparison of two skin preps using in cardiac surgical procedures. AORN Journal 1995;62(3):393-402.
68. Harnoss JC, Brune L, Ansorg J, Heidecke CD, Assadian O, Kramer A. Practice of skin protection and skin care among German surgeons and influence on the efficacy of surgical hand disinfection and surgical glove perforation. BMC Infectious Diseases 2014;14:315. [DOI: 10.1186/1471-2334-14-315]
69. Heeg P, Osswald W, Schwenzer N. A trial on the efficacy of various surgical hand disinfection method under experimental and clinical conditions [Wirksamkeitsvergleich von desinfektionsverfahren zur chirurgischen handedesinfektion unter experimentellen und klinischen bedingungen]. Hygiene + Medizin 1986;11(3):107-10.
70. Heeg P. Does hand care ruin hand disinfection?. Journal of Hospital Infection 2001;48(Suppl A):S37-9.
71. Heeg P, Octermeyer C, Kampf G. Comparative review of the test design Tenative Monograph (TFM) and EN 12791 for surgical hand disinfectants. Journal of Hospital Infection 2008;70(Suppl 1):22-6.
72. Hibbard JS, Mulbery GK, Brady AR. A clinical study comparing the skin antisepsis and safety of chloraprep, 70% isopropyl alcohol and 2% aqueous chlorhexidine. Journal of Infusion Nursing 2002;25(4):244-9.
73. Hibbard JS. Administration of 2% chlorhexidine gluconate in 70% isopropyl alcohol is effective in 30 seconds (letter). Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 2002;23(5):233-5.
74. Hingst V, Juditzki I, Heeg P, Sonntag HG. Evaluation of the efficacy of surgical hand disinfection following a reduced application time of 3 instead of 5 min. Journal of Hospital Infection 1992;20(2):79-86.
75. Hobson DW, Woller W, Anderson L, Guthery E. Development and evaluation of a new alcohol-based surgical hand scrub formulation with persistent antimicrobial characteristics and brushless application. American Journal of Infection Control 1998;26(5):507-12.
76. Hubner NO, Kampf G, Loffler H, Kramer A. Effect of a 1 min hand wash on the bactericidal efficacy of consecutive surgical hand disinfection with standard alcohols and on skin hydration. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmnetal Health 2006;209(3):285-91.
77. Incoll I, Saravanja D, Thorvaldson KT, Small T. Comparison of the effectiveness of painting onto the hand and immersing the hand in a bag, in pre-operative skin preparation of the hand. Journal of Hand Surgery: European Volume 2009;34(3):371-3.
78. Jeng DK, Severin JE. Povidone iodine gel alcohol: a 30 second, one time application preoperative skin preparation. American Journal of Infection Control 1998;26(5):488-94.
79. Jeng DK. A new water-resistant film-forming, 30 second, one-step application iodophor preoperative skin preparation. American Journal of Infection Control 2001;29(6):370-6.
80. Jones RD, Jampani H, Mulberry G, Rizer RL. Moisturing alcohol hand gels for surgical hand preparation. AORN Journal 2000;71(3):584-7, 589-90, 592.
81. Joress SM. A study of disinfection of the skin. Annals of Surgery 1962;155(2):296-304.
82. Kampf G, Ostermeyer C, Heeg P. Surgical hand disinfection with a propanol-based hand rub:equivalence of shorter application times. Journal of Hospital Infection 2005;59(4):304-10.
83. Kargie, Babuccu O, Altunkaya H, Hosnuter M, Ozer Y, Babuccu B, et al. Tramadol as a local anaesthetic in tendon repair surgery of the hand. The Journal of International Medical Research 2008;36(5):971-8.
84. Keser A, Bozkurt M, Taner OF, Yorgancigil B, Dogan M, Sensoz O. Evaluation of antiseptic use in plastic and hand surgery. Annals of Plastic Surgery 2005;55(5):490-4.
85. Kikuchi Numagami K, Saishu T, Fukaya M, Kanazawa E, Tagami H. Irritancy of scrubbing up for surgery with or without a brush. Acta Dermato- Venereologica 1999;79(3):230-2.
86. Kjellander J, Nygren B. Trial of a synthetic cream (pHisoHex) for preoperative disinfection of the hands. Svenska Lakartidningen 1960;57:1307-16.
87. Kong KC, Sheppard M, Serne G. Dispensing surgical gloves onto the open surgical gown pack does not increase the bacterial contamination rate. Journal of Hospital Infection 1994;26(4):293-6.
88. Kramer A, Hubner N, Below H, Heidecke CD, Assadian O. Improving adherence to surgical hand preparation. Journal of Hospital Infection 2008;70(Suppl 1):35-43.
89. Kramer A, Hubner N, Below H, Heidecke CD, Assadian O. Improving adherence to surgical hand preparation. Journal of Hospital Infection 2008;70(Suppl 1):35-43.
90. Larson E. Effects of handwashing agent, handwashing frequency, and clinical area on hand flora. American Journal of Infection Control 1984;11:76-82.
91. Larson EL, Eke PI, Laughton BE. Efficacy of alcohol-based hand rinses under frequent-use conditions. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 1986;30(4):542-4.
92. Larson EL, Leyden JJ, McGinley KJ, Grove GL, Talbot GH. Physiologic and microbiologic changes in skin related to frequent hand washing. Infection Control 1986;7(2):59-63.
93. Larson EL, Butz AM, Gullette DL, Laughton BA. Alcohol for surgical scrubbing. Infection Control Hospital Epidemiology 1990;11:139-43.
94. Larson E, Anderson JK, Baxendale L, Bobo L. Effects of a protective foam on scrubbing and gloving. American Journal of Infection Control 1993;21(6):297-301.
95. Larson E, Aiello A, Lyle C, Stahl J, Cronquist A, Lai L, et al. Assessment of two hand hygiene regimens for intensive care unit personnel. Critical Care Medicine 2001;29(5):944-51.
96. Larson EL, Aiello AE, Heilman JM, Lyle C, Cronquist A, Stahl JB, et al. Comparison of different regimens for surgical hand preparation. AORN Journal 2001;73(2):412-32.
97. Lehmann KA, Horrichs G, Hoeckle W. The significance of tramadol as an intraoperative analgesic. A randomized double-blind study in comparison with placebo. Anaesthetist 1985;34(1):11-9.
98. Lepor NE, Madyoon H. Antiseptic skin agents for percutaneous procedures. Reviews in Cardiovascular Medicine 2009;10(4):187-93.
99. Lilly HA, Lowbury JL, Wilkins MD. Detergents compared with each other and with antiseptics as skin degerming agents. Journal of Hygiene of Cambridge 1979;82(1):89-93.
100. Lio PA, Kaye ET. Topical antibacterial agents. Infectious Disease Clinics of North America 2009;23(4):945-63.
101. Llanos S, Danilla S, Barraza C, Armijo E, Piñeros JL, Quintas M, et al. Effectiveness of negative pressure closure in the integration of split thickness skin grafts: a randomized, double masked, controlled trial. Annals of Surgery 2006;244(5):700-5.
102. Loeb MB, Wilcox L, Smaill F, Walter S, Duff Z. A randomized trial of surgical scrubbing with a brush compared to antiseptic soap alone. American Journal of Infection Control 1997;25(1):11-5.
103. Lowbury E, Lilly H. The effect of blood on disinfection of surgeon's hands. British Journal of Surgery 1974;61(1):19-21.
104. Lowbury EJL, Lilly HA, Ayliffe GAJ. Preoperative disinfection of surgeons' hands: use of alcoholic solutions and effects of gloves on skin flora. British Medical Journal 1974;4:369-72.
105. Lung DC, Man JHK, Tang THC, Wong LKY, Leung GKK. Surgical hand washing. Annals of the College of Surgeons of Hong Kong 2004;8(3):71-5.
106. Magann EF, Dodson MK, Ray MA, Harris RL, Martin JN, Morrison JC. Preoperative skin preparation and intraoperative pelvic irrigation: impact on post-Cesarean endometritis and wound infection. Occupational Therapy Journal of Research 1993;81(6):922-5.
107. Magera JS, Inman BA, Elliott DS. Does preoperative topical antimicrobial scrub reduce positive surgical site culture rates in men undergoing artificial urinary sphincter placement?. Journal of Urology 2007;178(4 Pt 1):1328-2. Discussion 1332.
108. Marchetti MG, Kampf G, Finzi G, Salvatorelli G. Evaluation of the bactericidal effect of five products for surgical hand disinfection according to prEN 12054 and prEN12791. Journal of Hospital Infection 2003;54(1):63-67.
109. Marra AP, D'Arco C, Bravim Bde A, Martino MD, Silva CV, Lamblet LC, et al. Controlled trial measuring the effect of a feedback intervention on hand hygiene compliance in a step-down unit. Infection Control and Hosptial Epidemiology 2008;29(8):730-5.
110. Mathias JM. Sould we discard ritual of scrubbing with brush?. OR Manager 2000;16(9):20-2.
111. Mathias JM. Soap, alcohol rub OK for surgical scrub. OR Manager 2002;18(12):6.
112. McBride ME, Duncan WC, Knox JM. An evaluation of surgical scrub brushes. Surgery, Gynecology and Obstetrics 1973;137(6):934-6.
113. Meers PD, Yeo GA. Shedding of bacteria and skin squames after handwashing. Journal of Hygiene 1978;81(1):99-105.
114. Minakuchi K, Yamamoto Y, Matsunaga K, Hayata M, Yasuda T, Katsuno Y, et al. The antiseptic effect of a quick drying rubbing type povidone iodine alcoholic disinfectant solution. Postgraduate Medicine 1993;69(Suppl 3):S23-6.
115. Misterka S. Clinical evaluation of hydrogel-type dressing materials after their 8-year use [Kliniczna ocena hydrozelowych materiałów opatrunkowych po 8-letnim ich zastosowaniu]. Polimery w Medycynie 1991;21(1-2):23-30.
116. Moralejo D, Jull A. Handrubbing with an alcohol based solution reduced healthcare workers' hand contamination more than handwashing with antiseptic soap. Evidence based Nursing 2003;6(2):54.
117. Mulberry G, Snyder AT, Heilman J, Pyrek J, Stahl J. Evaluation of a waterless, scrubless chlorhexidine gluconate/ethanol surgical scrub for antimicrobial efficiency. American Journal of Infection Control 2001;29(6):377-82.
118. Murie JA, Macpherson SG. Chlorhexidine in methanol for the preoperative cleansing of surgeons' hands: a clinical trial. Scottish Medical Journal 1980;25(4):309-11.
119. Nakano H, Asakura T, Sakurai J, Loizumi S, Asano T, Watanabe T, et al. Prophylactic irrigation around a pancreaticojejunostomy for the treatment of a pancreatic fistula after a pancreaticoduodenectomy in patients with a risky pancreatic remnant. Hepato-gastroenterology 2008;55(82-83):717-21.
120. Nowak W, Erbe HJ. Wound infection prophylaxis in colonic rectal surgery with metronidazole and neomycin - a prospective study. Zentralblatt fur Chirurgie 1982;107(13):763-7.
121. O'Shaughnessy M, O'Malley VP, Corbett G, Given HF. Optimum duration of surgical scrub-time. British Journal of Surgery 1991;78(6):685-6.
122. Olson LKM, Morse DJ, Duley C, Savell BK. Prospective, randomized in vivo comparison of a dual-active waterless antiseptic versus two alcohol-only waterless antiseptics for surgical hand antisepsis. American Journal of Infection Control 2012;40(2):155-159.
123. Ortiz H, Armednariz P, Kreisler E, Garcia-Granero E, Espin-Basany E, Roig JV, et al. Influence of rescrubbing before laparotomy closure on abdominal wound infection after colorectal cancer surgery. Archives of Surgery 2012;147(7):614-20.
124. Parienti JJ, Du Cheyron D, Ramakers M, MAlbruny B, Leclerq R, Le Coutour X, et al. members of the NACRE Study Group. Alcoholic povidone-iodine to prevent central venous catheter colonization: a randomized unit-crossover study. Critical Care Medicine 2004;32(3):708-13.
125. Paulson DS. Comparative evaluation of five surgical hand scrub preparations. AORN Journal 1994;60(2):246-6.
126. Paulson DS, Fendler EJ, Dolan MJ, Williams RA. A close look at alcohol gel as an antimicrobial sanitizing agent. American Journal of Infection Control 1999;27(4):332-8.
127. Peterson AF, Rosenberg A, Alatary SD. Comparative evaluation of surgical scrub preparations. Surgery, Gynecology and Obstetrics 1978;146(1):63-5.
128. Phimolsarnti R, Kongsamrarn S, Limwongse K, Jitniyom P, Vutavipart P. Effectiveness of surgical hand scrub solutions. Southeast Asian Journal of Surgery 1986;9(1):96-100.
129. Poon C, Morgan DJ, Pond K, Kane J, Tulloh B. Studies of the surgical scrub. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Surgery 1998;68(1):65-7.
130. Rehork B, Ruden H. Investigations into the efficacy of different procedures for surgical hand disinfection between consecutive operations. Journal of Hospital Infection 1991;19(2):115-27.
131. 2 laser treatment. Lasers in Surgery and Medicine 1991;11(5):475-80.
132. Reverdy ME, Martra A, Fleurette J. A Comparative study of nine disinfectants and / or soaps for surgical disinfection of hands [Efficacite de neuf savons et /ou antiseptiques sur la flore des main apres un lavage de type chirugical]. Pathologie Biologie 1984;32(5):591-5.
133. Rotter ML, Koller W, Wewalka G. Povidone iodine and chlorhexidine gluconate containing detergents for disinfection of the hands. Journal of Hospital Infection 1980;1(2):149-58.
134. Rotter ML. Hygienic hand disinfection. Infection Control 1984;5(1):18-22.
135. Rotter ML, Koller W, Wewalka G. Evaluation of procedures for hygienic hand disinfection. Journal of Hygiene 1986;96(1):27-37.
136. Rotter ML, Simpson RA, Koller W. Surgical hand disinfection with alcohols at various concentrations. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 1998;19:778-81.
137. Rotter M, Satter SA, Dharan S, Webber P, Voss A, Pittet D. Comparative efficacy of hand hygiene agents in the reduction of bacteria and viruses. American Journal of Infection Control 2005;339:558-60.
138. Rotter M, Kundi M, Suchomel M, Karke HP, Kramer A, Ostermeyer C, et al. Reproducibility and workability of the European test standard EN 12791 regarding the effectiveness of surgical hand antisepsis: a randomised, multicentre trial. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 2006;27:935-9.
139. Sattar AB, Abebe M, Jampani H, Newman J, Hua S. Activity of an alcohol based hand gel against human adeno-rhino- and rotaviruses using the finger pad method. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 2000;21(8):516-9.
140. Scheibel JH, Jensen I, Pedersen S. Bacterial contamination of air and surgical wounds during joint replacement operations - comparison of two different types of staff clothing. Journal of Hospital Infection 1991;19(3):167-74.
141. Scott D, Barnes A, Lister M, Arkell P. An evaluation of the user acceptability of chlorhexidine handwash formulations. Journal of Hospital Infection 1991;18(Suppl B):51-5.
142. Sensoz O, Uysal AC, Baran CN. Presurgical scrubbing in plastic and reconstructive surgery: a prospective study. European Journal of Plastic Surgery 2003;25(7-8):369-73.
143. Serra N, Torres OG, Romo MI, Llovera JM, Vigil Escalera LJ, Soto MA, et al. Hydro-colloidal dressings which release hydro-silver. Revista de Enfermeria 2005;28(2):13-8.
144. Shirahatti RG, Joshi RM, Vishwanath YK, Shinkre N, Rao S, Sankpal JS, et al. Effect of pre-operative skin preparation on post-operative wound infection. Journal of Postgraduate Medicine 1993;39(3):134-6.
145. Simor AE, Phillips E, McGeer A, Konvalinka A, Loeb M, Devlin HR, et al. Ramdomized controlled trial of chlorhexidine gluconate for washing, intranasal mupirocin, and rifampin and doxycycline versus no treatment for the eradication of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus colonization. Clinical Infectious Diseases 2007;44(2):178-85.
146. Springer R. To brush or not to brush. Plastic Surgery Nursing 2002;22(4):185-8.
147. Stahl JB, Morse D, Parks PJ. Resistance of antimicrobial skin preparations to saline rinse using a seeded bacteria model. American Journal of Infection Control 2007;35(6):367-73.
148. Starr RV, Zurawaski J, Ismail M. Preoperative vaginal preparations with povidone iodine and the risk of postcesarean endometritis. Obstetrics and Gynecology 2005;105(5 Pt1):1024-9.
149. Stevenson J, McNaughton G, Riley J. The use of prophylactic flucloxacillin in treatment of open fractures of the distal phalanx within an accident and emergency department. Journal of Hand Surgery 2003;28B(5):388-94.
150. Sullivan PJ, Healy CE, Hirpara KM, Hussey AJ, Potter SM, Kelly JL. An assessment of skin preparation in upper limb surgery. Journal of Hand Surgery: European Volume 2008;33(4):513-4.
151. Tanner J. Surgical hand antisepsis: the evidence. Journal of Periopertive Practice 2008;18(8):339.
152. Thiele RH, Huffmyer JL, Nemergut EC. The "six stigma approach" to the operating room environment and infection. Best Practice and Research: Clinical Anaesthesiology 2008;22(3):537-52.
153. Tucci V, Stone AM, Thompson C. Studies of the surgical scrub. Surgery, Gynecology and Obstetrics 1977;145:415-6.
154. Valente JH, Forti RJ, Freundlich LF, Zandieh SO, Crain EF. Wound irrigation in children:saline solution or tap water?. Annals of Emergency Medicine 2003;41(5):609-16.
155. Vogt PM, Remier K, Hauser J, Rossbach O, Steinau HU, Bosse B, et al. PVP-iodine in hydrosomes and hydrogel - a novel concept in wound therapy leads to enhanced epithelialization and reduced loss of skin grafts. Burns 2006;32(6):698-705.
156. Voss A, Widmer AF. No time for handwashing? Handwashing versus alcoholic rub: can we afford 100% compliance?. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 1997;18(3):205-8.
157. Vossinakis IC, Stavroulaki P, Paleochorlidis, Badras LS. Reducing the pain associated with local anaesthetic infiltration for open carpal tunnel decompression. Journal of hand surgery 2004;29(4):399-401.
158. Walwaikar PP, Morye VK, Gawde AS. Open, prospective trial to evaluate the efficacy and safety of combination of metronidazole and povidone iodine in comparison to povidone iodine alone in pre- and post sterilisation and surgical wound healing. Journal of the Indian Medical Association 2002;100(10):615-8.
159. Waterman TR, Smeak DD, Kowalski J, Hade EM. Comparison of bacterial counts in glove juice of surgeons wearing smooth band rings versus those without rings. American Journal of Infection Control 2006;34(7):421-5.
160. Webster J, Faoagali JL. An in-use comparison of chlorhexidine gluconate 4% w/v. glycol-poly-siloxane plus methylcellulose and a liquid soap in a special care baby unit. Journal of Hospital Infection 1989;14(2):141-51.
161. Wernze H, HIlfenhaus M, Rietbrock I, Schuttke R, Kuhn K. Plasma renin activity and plasma aldosterone during anaesthesia and operative stress and beta-adrenergic blockade. Anaesthesist 1975;24(11):476-6.
162. Whittaker JP, Nancarrow JD, Sterne GD. The role of antibiotic prophylaxis in clean incised hand injuries: a prospective randomized placebo controlled double blind trial. Journal of Hand Surgery 2005;30(2):162-7.
163. Yeung JWK, Tam WWS, Wong T-W. A review of the evidence for hand hygiene in different clinical and community settings for family physicians. Hong Kong Practitioner 2007;29(4):157-63.
164. Yuldashkhan M, Bolurchifard F, Amiri Z. Comparing two antiseptic solutions for scrubbing "decosept with povidone iodine" [Original article in Farsi]. SBMU Faculty of Nursing and Midwifery Quarterly 2008;18(60):14-20.
165. Zaragoza M, Salles M, Gomez J, Baya JM, Trilla A. Handwashing with soap or alcoholic solutions? A randomised clinical trial of its effectiveness. American Journal on Infection Control 1999;27:258-61.
166. Chen CF, Han CL, Kan CP, Chen SG, Hung PW. Effect of surgical site infections with waterless and traditional hand scrubbing protocols on bacterial growth. American Journal of Infection Control 2012;40(4):e15-e17.
167. Australian College of Operating Room Nurses. Standards for Perioperative Nursing. O'Halloran Hill, Australia: ACORN Ltd, 2012.
168. Association for Perioperative Practice. Standards and Recommendations for Safe Perioperative Practice. http://www.afpp.org.uk/books-journals/books/book-123. AfPP, 2011.
169. Association of Operating Room Nurses. Perioperative Standards and Recommended Practices. http://www.afpp.org.uk/books-journals/books/book-123. http://www.aorn.org/Guidelines/: AORN Ltd, 2010.
170. Arrowsmith V, Taylor R. Removal of nail polish and finger rings to prevent surgical infection. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2014, Issue 8. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD003325.pub3]
171. Centres for Disease Control and Prevention. Guideline for hand hygiene in health care settings. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 2002; Vol. 51:16.
172. Goncalves K, Graziano K, Kawagoe J. A systematic review of surgical hand antisepsis using an alcohol preparation compared to traditional products. Revista de Escola de Enfermagem 2012;46(6):1484-93.
173. Higgins JPT, Green S, editors. Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Review of Interventions Version 4.2.5 [updated May 2005]. The Cochrane Collaboration, 2005. Available from www.cochrane-handbook.org. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
174. Higgins JPT, Altman DG, Sterne JAC (editors). Chapter 8: Assessing risk of bias in included studies. In:Higgins JPT, Green S (editors). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.0 [updated March 2011]. The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011. Available from www.cochrane-handbook.org. The Cochrane Collaboration.
175. Woodhead K, Taylor EW, Bannister G, Chesworth T, Hoffman P, Humphreys H, Hospital Infection Society. Behaviours and rituals in the operating theatre: a report from the Hospital Infection Society Working Group in Infection Control in the Operating Room. Hospital Infection Society, 2001. Available from: www.his.org.uk.
176. Hsieh HF, Chui HH, Lee FP. Surgical hand scrubs in relation to microbial counts: systematic literature review. Journal of Advanced Nursing 2006;55(1):68-78.
177. Kimborough RD. Review of the toxicity of hexachlorophene, including its neurotoxicity. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 1973;13(11):439-51.
178. Larson 1995. APIC guideline for handwashing and hand antisepsis in health care settings. American Journal of Infection Control 1995;23(4):251-69.
179. Leaper D, Tanner J, Kiernan M, Assadian O, Edmiston C. Surgical site infection: poor compliance with guidelines and care bundles. International Wound Journal 2015;12(3):357-62.
180. Lefebvre C, Manheimer E, Glanville J. Chapter 6: Searching for studies. In: Higgins JPT, Green S (editors). Cochrane Handbook forSystematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.0 [updated March 2011]. The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011. Available from www.cochrane-handbook.org.
181. Mangram AJ, Horan TC, Pearson ML, Silver LC, Jarvis WR. Guideline for prevention of surgical site infection. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 1999;20(4):247-78.
182. McDonnell G, Denver RA. Antiseptics and disinfectants: activity, action and resistance. Clinical Microbiology Review 1999;12(1):147-79.
183. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. Surgical site infection: prevention and treatment of surgical site infection Clinical Guideline 74. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence, 2008. Available from: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg74.
184. Plowman R, Graves N, Griffin M. The socio-economic burden of hospital acquired infection. London: Public Health Laboratory Service, 2000.
185. The Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration. Review Manager (RevMan). Version 5.3. Copenhagen: The Cochrane Collaboration, 2014.
186. Schünemann HJ, Oxman AD, Higgins JPT, Deeks JJ, Glasziou P, Guyatt GH. Chapter 12: Interpreting results and drawing conclusions. In: Higgins JPT, Green S (editors). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.0 [updated March 2011]. The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011. Available from www.cochrane-handbook.org.
187. Schünemann HJ, Oxman AD, Higgins JPT, Vist GE, Glasziou P, Guyatt GH. Chapter 11: Presenting results and 'Summary of findings' tables. In: Higgins JPT, Green S (editors). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.0 [updated March 2011]. The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011. Available from www.cochrane-handbook.org.
188. Sigler M, Bastyr J, Stahl J, Pyrek JD. Comparison of a waterless, scrubless CHG/ethanol surgical scrub to traditional CHG and povidone iodine surgical scrubs. 3M Health Care 2001.
189. Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network (SIGN). Search filters. http://www.sign.ac.uk/methodology/filters.html#random (accessed December 2011).
190. World Health Organization. WHO guidelines on hand hygiene in health care. WHO Guideline series. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2009.
191. Swarbrook S, Stuart J, Tanner J. Surgical hand antisepsis to reduce surgical site infection (Protocol). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2003, Issue 2. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004288]
192. Tanner J, Swarbrook S, Stuart J. Surgical hand antisepsis to reduce surgical site infection. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2008, Issue 1. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004288.pub2]