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Volumn 25, Issue 2, 1987, Pages 167-194

Alexander von Humboldt, Humboldtian Science and the Origins of the Study of Vegetation

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EID: 84965710889     PISSN: 00732753     EISSN: 17538564     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/007327538702500203     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (82)

References (99)
  • 1
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    • New York This book was first published in Swedish in 1920–24
    • Nordenskiöld E., The history of biology (New York, 1928), 560–1. This book was first published in Swedish in 1920–24.
    • (1928) The history of biology , pp. 560-561
    • Nordenskiöld, E.1
  • 4
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    • Vegetation as an object of study
    • See for an elucidation of the distinction between the study of flora and of vegetation
    • See Egler F. E., “Vegetation as an object of study”, Philosophy of science, ix (1942), 245–60 for an elucidation of the distinction between the study of flora and of vegetation.
    • (1942) Philosophy of science , vol.ix , pp. 245-260
    • Egler, F.E.1
  • 5
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    • London ch. 7, provides a good description of the taxonomic interests of eighteenth century botanists; see also The naturalist in Britain: A social history London 1976 Linnaeus and the Linneans: The spreading of their ideas in systematic botany Utrecht 1971
    • Morton A. G., History of botanical science (London, 1981), ch. 7, provides a good description of the taxonomic interests of eighteenth century botanists; see also Allen D. E., The naturalist in Britain: A social history (London, 1976), 26–51, and Stafleu F. A., Linnaeus and the Linneans: The spreading of their ideas in systematic botany (Utrecht, 1971).
    • (1981) History of botanical science , pp. 26-51
    • Morton, A.G.1    Allen, D.E.2    Stafleu, F.A.3
  • 6
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    • The fundamental units of vegetation
    • 27
    • Moss C. E., “The fundamental units of vegetation”, New phytologist, ix (1910), 18–51, p. 27.
    • (1910) New phytologist , vol.ix , pp. 18-51
    • Moss, C.E.1
  • 7
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    • Linnaeus as a phytogeographer
    • See
    • See Du Rietz G. E., “Linnaeus as a phytogeographer”, Vegetatio, v (1957), 161–8.
    • (1957) Vegetatio , vol.v , pp. 161-168
    • Du Rietz, G.E.1
  • 8
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    • Introduction
    • For an elucidation of the “Economy of Nature” concept as it is relevant to the present discussion see trans. by Paris see also Nature's economy: The roots of ecology San Francisco 1977 1–55.
    • For an elucidation of the “Economy of Nature” concept as it is relevant to the present discussion see Limoges C., “Introduction” in Linnaeus C., L’équilibre de la Nature, trans. by Jasmin B. (Paris, 1972), 7–25; see also Worster D., Nature's economy: The roots of ecology (San Francisco, 1977), 1–55.
    • (1972) L’équilibre de la Nature , pp. 7-25
    • Limoges, C.1    Linnaeus, C.2    Jasmin, B.3    Worster, D.4
  • 10
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    • Changing concepts of the balance of nature
    • See op. cit (ref. 8) 31–55.
    • See Egerton F. E., “Changing concepts of the balance of nature”, Quarterly review of biology, xlviii (1973), 322–50; Worster, op. cit. (ref. 8), 31–55.
    • (1973) Quarterly review of biology , vol.xlviii , pp. 322-350
    • Egerton, F.E.1    Worster2
  • 11
    • 84965760826 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This argument has been elaborated in unpublished mimeograph, copies available from author
    • This argument has been elaborated in Nicolson M., “Was there a Linnean ecology?”, unpublished mimeograph, copies available from author.
    • Was there a Linnean ecology?
    • Nicolson, M.1
  • 13
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    • Foucault and the history of classification theory
    • (ref. 3) Foucault's views on classificatory practice in the eighteenth century have been clarified by Studies in the history and philosophy of science 163–71.
    • Foucault, op. cit. (ref. 3), 132. Foucault's views on classificatory practice in the eighteenth century have been clarified by Pratt V., “Foucault and the history of classification theory”, Studies in the history and philosophy of science, viii (1977), 163–71.
    • (1977) op. cit , vol.viii , pp. 132
    • Foucault1    Pratt, V.2
  • 15
    • 84948894802 scopus 로고
    • (ref. 3) Foucault uses the term episteme to refer to the totality of rules and frameworks upon which discourse is based in any given historical period. His use of this term is elucidated in Michel Foucault: The will to truth London 53 et passim.
    • Foucault, op. cit. (ref. 3), 162. Foucault uses the term episteme to refer to the totality of rules and frameworks upon which discourse is based in any given historical period. His use of this term is elucidated in Sheridan A., Michel Foucault: The will to truth (London, 1980), 53 et passim.
    • (1980) op. cit , pp. 162
    • Foucault1    Sheridan, A.2
  • 16
    • 84965626450 scopus 로고
    • lectures on physical geography are contained in Berlin An English translation of Kant's introduction to the lectures is provided in Kant's concept of geography Toronto 1970 255–64. Although an official edition of the lectures was not published until 1801, manuscript notes were widely circulated and discussed in the 1770s and ’80s, Bowen M. J., Empiricism and geographical thought: From Francis Bacon to Alexander von Humboldt (Cambridge, 1981), 206. For further accounts of Kant's interest in geography, see Hartshorne R., “The nature of geography”, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, xxix (1939), 171–658, and Bowen, op. cit.
    • Kant's lectures on physical geography are contained in Kant I., Gesammelte Schriften (Berlin, 1902-), x, 151–436. An English translation of Kant's introduction to the lectures is provided in May J. A., Kant's concept of geography (Toronto, 1970), 255–64. Although an official edition of the lectures was not published until 1801, manuscript notes were widely circulated and discussed in the 1770s and ’80s, Bowen M. J., Empiricism and geographical thought: From Francis Bacon to Alexander von Humboldt (Cambridge, 1981), 206. For further accounts of Kant's interest in geography, see Hartshorne R., “The nature of geography”, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, xxix (1939), 171–658, and Bowen, op. cit.
    • (1902) Gesammelte Schriften , vol.x , pp. 151-436
    • Kant's1    Kant, I.2    May, J.A.3
  • 17
    • 84937666685 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Trans. in (ref. 16)
    • Trans. in May, op. cit. (ref. 16), 260.
    • op. cit , pp. 260
    • May1
  • 18
    • 0005559012 scopus 로고
    • The concept of geography as a science of space, from Kant and Humboldt to Hettner
    • Quoted in (ref. 16) See also Annals of the Association of American Geographers 97–108.
    • Quoted in Hartshorne, op. cit. (ref. 16), 44. See also Hartshorne R., “The concept of geography as a science of space, from Kant and Humboldt to Hettner”, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, xlviii (1958), 97–108.
    • (1958) op. cit , vol.xlviii , pp. 44
    • Hartshorne1    Hartshorne, R.2
  • 19
    • 33947654535 scopus 로고
    • Regional emphasis is identified as one of the central traditions of early nineteenth century German geography by Ph.D. thesis University of California Berkeley
    • Regional emphasis is identified as one of the central traditions of early nineteenth century German geography by Macpherson A. M., “The human geography of Alexander von Humboldt” (Ph.D. thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1972).
    • (1972) The human geography of Alexander von Humboldt
    • Macpherson, A.M.1
  • 23
    • 84944378249 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This point is made by (ref. 20)
    • This point is made by Browne, op. cit. (ref. 20), 37.
    • op. cit , pp. 37
    • Browne1
  • 24
    • 84945797921 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (ref. 22)
    • Forster, op. cit. (ref. 22), 174.
    • op. cit , pp. 174
    • Forster1
  • 25
    • 84887781304 scopus 로고
    • Willdenow, Karl Ludwig
    • For biographical details of Willdenow, see König C., “Die historische Entwickelung der pflanzengeographischen Ideen Humboldts”, Naturwissenschaftliche Wochenschrift, x (1895), 77–81, 95–98, 117–24, pp. 95–98.
    • For biographical details of Willdenow, see Bylebyl J., “Willdenow, Karl Ludwig”, Dictionary of scientific biography, xiv (1976), 386–8; König C., “Die historische Entwickelung der pflanzengeographischen Ideen Humboldts”, Naturwissenschaftliche Wochenschrift, x (1895), 77–81, 95–98, 117–24, pp. 95–98.
    • (1976) Dictionary of scientific biography , vol.xiv , pp. 386-388
    • Bylebyl, J.1
  • 26
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    • Berlin I have quoted from both the first and second English editions Edinburgh 1805 1811
    • Willdenow K. L. (Berlin, 1792). I have quoted from both the first and second English editions, Willdenow K. L., Principles of botany (Edinburgh, 1805, 1811).
    • (1792) Principles of botany
    • Willdenow, K.L.1
  • 28
    • 84965748188 scopus 로고
    • (ref. 26 Willdenow's usage of the term “history of plants” seems to be related to concept of a “history of nature”: “The history of nature, which we still almost wholly lack, would teach us the changes of the earth's form, and likewise those which the earth's creatures (plants and animals) have undergone through natural changes and their alterations which have thence taken place away from the original form of the stem genus. This would convert the presently greatly extended formal system of the description of nature into a physical system of the understanding.” (ref. 16 1902 -), ii, 434, first published 1777 trans. in From natural history to the history of Nature: Readings from Buffon and his critics Notre Dame 1981 1.
    • Willdenow, op. cit. (ref. 26, 1805), 371. Willdenow's usage of the term “history of plants” seems to be related to Kant's concept of a “history of nature”: “The history of nature, which we still almost wholly lack, would teach us the changes of the earth's form, and likewise those which the earth's creatures (plants and animals) have undergone through natural changes and their alterations which have thence taken place away from the original form of the stem genus. This would convert the presently greatly extended formal system of the description of nature into a physical system of the understanding.” Kant (ref. 16, 1902-), ii, 434, first published 1777, trans. in Lyon J. and Sloan P. R. (eds), From natural history to the history of Nature: Readings from Buffon and his critics (Notre Dame, 1981), 1.
    • (1805) op. cit , pp. 371
    • Willdenow1    Kant2    Lyon, J.3    Sloan, P.R.4
  • 29
    • 84965748185 scopus 로고
    • (ref. 26
    • Willdenow, op. cit. (ref. 26, 1811), 415–16.
    • (1811) op. cit , pp. 415-416
    • Willdenow1
  • 30
    • 84965748188 scopus 로고
    • See, for example, his discussion of vegetational succession (ref. 26
    • See, for example, his discussion of vegetational succession, Willdenow, op. cit. (ref. 26, 1805), 392–4.
    • (1805) op. cit , pp. 392-394
    • Willdenow1
  • 31
    • 84965748188 scopus 로고
    • (ref. 26
    • Willdenow, op. cit. (ref. 26, 1805), 383.
    • (1805) op. cit , pp. 383
    • Willdenow1
  • 32
    • 84944378249 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For a good account of Willdenow as a floristic plant geographer, see (ref. 20)
    • For a good account of Willdenow as a floristic plant geographer, see Browne, op. cit. (ref. 20), 38–41.
    • op. cit , pp. 38-41
    • Browne1
  • 33
    • 84965604639 scopus 로고
    • The best English account of Humboldt's life and work remains Bruhns K.,(ed.) trans. by London also Humboldt and the Cosmos New York 1973
    • The best English account of Humboldt's life and work remains Bruhns K.,(ed.), Life of Alexander Humboldt, trans. by Lassell J. and Lassell C. (London, 1873); also Botting D., Humboldt and the Cosmos (New York, 1973).
    • (1873) Life of Alexander Humboldt
    • Lassell, J.1    Lassell, C.2    Botting, D.3
  • 34
    • 33947659622 scopus 로고
    • Mind and Nature: The physical geography of Alexander von Humboldt
    • For a characterization of “physique générale”, see (ref. 2); for an excellent discussion of the aims of Humboldt's “universal science” see Scottish geographical magazine
    • For a characterization of “physique générale”, see Cannon, op. cit. (ref. 2); for an excellent discussion of the aims of Humboldt's “universal science” see Bowen M. J., “Mind and Nature: The physical geography of Alexander von Humboldt”, Scottish geographical magazine, lxxxvi (1970), 222–33.
    • (1970) op. cit , vol.lxxxvi , pp. 222-233
    • Cannon1    Bowen, M.J.2
  • 35
    • 84965729178 scopus 로고
    • Alexander von Humboldt und Karl Ludwig Willdenow
    • op. cit (ref. 25) 117–24.
    • Hein W. H., “Alexander von Humboldt und Karl Ludwig Willdenow”, Pharmazeutische Zeitung, civ (1959), 467–71; König, op. cit. (ref. 25), 117–24.
    • (1959) Pharmazeutische Zeitung , vol.civ , pp. 467-471
    • Hein, W.H.1    König2
  • 36
    • 84923580342 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See (ref. 35) 83–87. The younger Forster was an experienced scientific traveller and author, having been around the world with his father and having published a very successful account of the trip, Forster G., A voyage round the world in His Britannic Majesty's sloop, Resolution (London, 1777). In 1790, he and Humboldt made a journey from Germany to England. This was Humboldt's introduction to the art of scientific travelling. After his journey with Forster, Humboldt was continually making plans to undertake an important scientific expedition of his own, see Botting, op. cit. (ref. 35), 21. Forster published a description of the journey he and Humboldt had made, Ansichten vom Niederrhein von Brabant, Flandern, Holland, England and Frankreich (Berlin, 1790). The book was acclaimed in literary circles as a major aesthetic achievement, particularly by Goethe Schiller and Brother Alexander's von Humboldt Wilhelm (see Meyer-Abich A., Alexander von Humboldt (Bonn, 1969), 101).
    • See Bruhns, op. cit. (ref. 35), i, 83–87. The younger Forster was an experienced scientific traveller and author, having been around the world with his father and having published a very successful account of the trip, Forster G., A voyage round the world in His Britannic Majesty's sloop, Resolution (London, 1777). In 1790, he and Humboldt made a journey from Germany to England. This was Humboldt's introduction to the art of scientific travelling. After his journey with Forster, Humboldt was continually making plans to undertake an important scientific expedition of his own, see Botting, op. cit. (ref. 35), 21. Forster published a description of the journey he and Humboldt had made, Ansichten vom Niederrhein von Brabant, Flandern, Holland, England and Frankreich (Berlin, 1790). The book was acclaimed in literary circles as a major aesthetic achievement, particularly by Goethe Schiller and Brother Alexander's von Humboldt Wilhelm (see Meyer-Abich A., Alexander von Humboldt (Bonn, 1969), 101).
    • op. cit , pp. i
    • Bruhns1
  • 37
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    • Buffon, German biology and the historical interpretation of biological species
    • The dispute between Georg Forster and Kant is discussed in 131–4; see also May, op. cit. (ref. 16), 121–3.
    • The dispute between Georg Forster and Kant is discussed in Sloan P. R., “Buffon, German biology and the historical interpretation of biological species”, The British journal for the history of science, xii (1979), 109–53, pp. 131–4; see also May, op. cit. (ref. 16), 121–3.
    • (1979) The British journal for the history of science , vol.xii , pp. 109-153
    • Sloan, P.R.1
  • 38
    • 84965787775 scopus 로고
    • For the Kantianism of Flora Fribergensis Specimen, see Berlin
    • For the Kantianism of Flora Fribergensis Specimen, see Beck H., Gespräche Alexander von Humboldts (Berlin, 1956), 60.
    • (1956) Gespräche Alexander von Humboldts , pp. 60
    • Beck, H.1
  • 39
    • 84878596074 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • usage of these terms is considered in detail by (ref. 39); see also ref. 29 above
    • Kant's usage of these terms is considered in detail by Sloan, op. cit. (ref. 39); see also ref. 29 above.
    • op. cit
    • Kant's1    Sloan2
  • 40
    • 84945754202 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Quoted and trans. by (ref. 16)
    • Quoted and trans. by Hartshorne, op. cit. (ref. 16), 100.
    • op. cit , pp. 100
    • Hartshorne1
  • 41
    • 84965748261 scopus 로고
    • This change is characterized by (ref. 3) The late eighteenth century transformation in the content and aims of natural history, with the subsequent proliferation of new disciplines, is also discussed, from a rather different point of view, by op. cit (ref. 29), editors’ introduction; see also Biology in the nineteenth century Cambridge 1–8.
    • This change is characterized by Foucault, op. cit. (ref. 3), 125–65. The late eighteenth century transformation in the content and aims of natural history, with the subsequent proliferation of new disciplines, is also discussed, from a rather different point of view, by Lyon and Sloan, op. cit. (ref. 29), editors’ introduction; see also Coleman W., Biology in the nineteenth century (Cambridge, 1966), 1–8.
    • (1966) op. cit , pp. 125-165
    • Foucault1    Lyon2    Sloan3    Coleman, W.4
  • 42
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    • From Renaissance mineral studies to historical geology, in the light of Michel Foucault's The order of things
    • Albury W. R. and Oldroyd D. R., “From Renaissance mineral studies to historical geology, in the light of Michel Foucault's The order of things”, The British journal for the history of science, x (1977), 187–215.
    • (1977) The British journal for the history of science , vol.x , pp. 187-215
    • Albury, W.R.1    Oldroyd, D.R.2
  • 43
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    • Alexander von Humboldt: Remarks on the meaning of hypothesis in his geological researches
    • For Humboldt's debt to Werner see Schneer C. J.,(ed.) Cambridge, Mass.
    • For Humboldt's debt to Werner see Baumgärtel H., “Alexander von Humboldt: Remarks on the meaning of hypothesis in his geological researches”, in Schneer C. J.,(ed.), Toward a history of geology (Cambridge, Mass., 1969), 19–35.
    • (1969) Toward a history of geology , pp. 19-35
    • Baumgärtel, H.1
  • 44
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    • Quoted and trans. by (ref. 16)
    • Quoted and trans. by Hartshorne, op. cit. (ref. 16), 100.
    • op. cit , pp. 100
    • Hartshorne1
  • 46
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    • Towards Romantic landscape perception, illustrated travels and the use of ‘singularity’ as an aesthetic category
    • The making of journeys and the publishing of one's impressions was important as an aesthetic as well as a scientific enterprise, see also Pointon M., “Geology and landscape painting in nineteenth century England”, in Jordanova L. J. and Porter R. S. (eds), Images of the earth: Essays in the history of the environmental sciences (Chalfont St Giles, 1979), 84–118. See also ref. 38 above.
    • The making of journeys and the publishing of one's impressions was important as an aesthetic as well as a scientific enterprise, see Stafford B. M., “Towards Romantic landscape perception, illustrated travels and the use of ‘singularity’ as an aesthetic category”, Art quarterly, i (1977), 89–124; also Pointon M., “Geology and landscape painting in nineteenth century England”, in Jordanova L. J. and Porter R. S. (eds), Images of the earth: Essays in the history of the environmental sciences (Chalfont St Giles, 1979), 84–118. See also ref. 38 above.
    • (1977) Art quarterly , vol.i , pp. 89-124
    • Stafford, B.M.1
  • 47
    • 84888752837 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (ref. 47)
    • Humboldt, op. cit. (ref. 47), p. vii.
    • op. cit , pp. vii
    • Humboldt1
  • 48
    • 84965678245 scopus 로고
    • The unities within landscape described by are very similar to those postulated by contemporary Neo-classical theories of painting, see Oxford ch. 1 and
    • The unities within landscape described by Humboldt and Forster are very similar to those postulated by contemporary Neo-classical theories of painting, see Smith B., European vision and the South Pacific 1768–1850 (Oxford, 1960), ch. 1 and 64–65.
    • (1960) European vision and the South Pacific 1768–1850 , pp. 64-65
    • Humboldt1    Forster2    Smith, B.3
  • 49
    • 84888752837 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (ref. 47)
    • Humboldt, op. cit. (ref. 47), 30–31.
    • op. cit , pp. 30-31
    • Humboldt1
  • 50
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    • Ideas for a physiognomy of plants
    • See also trans.) London 217. A shorter version of this essay entitled “Ideen zu einer Physiognomik der Gewächse” was published in von Humboldt A., Ansichten der Natur (Tübingen, 1808).
    • See also von Humboldt A., “Ideas for a physiognomy of plants”, in Otté E. C. and Bohn H. G. (trans.), Views of Nature or contemplations on the sublime phenomena of Creation (London, 1850), 210–352, p. 217. A shorter version of this essay entitled “Ideen zu einer Physiognomik der Gewächse” was published in von Humboldt A., Ansichten der Natur (Tübingen, 1808).
    • (1850) Views of Nature or contemplations on the sublime phenomena of Creation , pp. 210-352
    • von Humboldt, A.1    Otté, E.C.2    Bohn, H.G.3
  • 51
  • 52
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    • For Humboldt's links with Goethe and Schiller, see (ref. 35) 161–79.
    • For Humboldt's links with Goethe and Schiller, see Bruhns, op. cit. (ref. 35), i, 161–79.
    • op. cit , pp. i
    • Bruhns1
  • 54
    • 84923580342 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (ref. 35) 176; for a recent account of Goethe's botany and a consideration of the relationship between Romanticism and botany, see Morton, op. cit. (ref. 5), 343–6.
    • Bruhns, op. cit. (ref. 35), i, p. 176; for a recent account of Goethe's botany and a consideration of the relationship between Romanticism and botany, see Morton, op. cit. (ref. 5), 343–6.
    • op. cit , pp. i
    • Bruhns1
  • 55
    • 84888752837 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (ref. 54) op. cit (ref. 35) i, 357.
    • Humboldt, op. cit. (ref. 54), 380–9; Bruhns, op. cit. (ref. 35), i, 357.
    • op. cit , pp. 380-389
    • Humboldt1    Bruhns2
  • 58
    • 84888752837 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • “How interesting and instructive to the landscape painter would be a work that should present to the eye accurate delineation of the sixteen principal forms [of plants — see discussion of life-forms below] enumerated, both individually and in collective contrast! What can be more picturesque than the arborescent Ferns, which spread their tender foliage above the Mexican laurel-oak! What more charming than the aspect of bananagroves, shaded by those lofty grasses, the Guadua and Bamboo! It is particularly the privilege of the artist to separate these into groups, and thus the beautiful images of nature … resolve themselves beneath his touch, like the written works of man, into a few simple elements.” (ref. 54) See also ref. 52 above
    • “How interesting and instructive to the landscape painter would be a work that should present to the eye accurate delineation of the sixteen principal forms [of plants — see discussion of life-forms below] enumerated, both individually and in collective contrast! What can be more picturesque than the arborescent Ferns, which spread their tender foliage above the Mexican laurel-oak! What more charming than the aspect of bananagroves, shaded by those lofty grasses, the Guadua and Bamboo! It is particularly the privilege of the artist to separate these into groups, and thus the beautiful images of nature … resolve themselves beneath his touch, like the written works of man, into a few simple elements.” Humboldt, op. cit. (ref. 54), 229–30. See also ref. 52 above.
    • op. cit , pp. 229-230
    • Humboldt1
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    • The Göttingen school and the development of transcendental Naturphilosophie in the Romantic era
    • See 112–13.
    • See Lenoir T., “The Göttingen school and the development of transcendental Naturphilosophie in the Romantic era”, Studies in the history of biology, v (1981), 111–205, pp. 112–13.
    • (1981) Studies in the history of biology , vol.v , pp. 111-205
    • Lenoir, T.1
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    • 84888752837 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (ref. 54)
    • Humboldt, op. cit. (ref. 54), 219.
    • op. cit , pp. 219
    • Humboldt1
  • 61
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    • Quoted in (ref. 35)
    • Quoted in Bruhns, op. cit. (ref. 35), 188.
    • op. cit , pp. 188
    • Bruhns1
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    • Kant, Blumenbach and vital materialism in German biology
    • For empiricism and holism in Blumenbach's work, see For other examples of harmony between commitments to Romanticism and to empirical science, see Knight D. M., “The physical sciences and the Romantic movement”, History of science, ix (1970), 54–75; Snelders H. A. M., “Romanticism and Naturphilosophie and the inorganic natural sciences, 1798–1840: An introductory survey”, Studies in Romanticism, ix (1970), 193–215; Culotta C. A., “German biophysics, objective knowledge and Romanticism”, Historical studies in the physical sciences, iv (1975), 3–38.
    • For empiricism and holism in Blumenbach's work, see Lenoir T., “Kant, Blumenbach and vital materialism in German biology”, Isis, lxxi (1980), 77–108. For other examples of harmony between commitments to Romanticism and to empirical science, see Knight D. M., “The physical sciences and the Romantic movement”, History of science, ix (1970), 54–75; Snelders H. A. M., “Romanticism and Naturphilosophie and the inorganic natural sciences, 1798–1840: An introductory survey”, Studies in Romanticism, ix (1970), 193–215; Culotta C. A., “German biophysics, objective knowledge and Romanticism”, Historical studies in the physical sciences, iv (1975), 3–38.
    • (1980) Isis , vol.lxxi , pp. 77-108
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    • (ref. 12) v. In the translator's preface, p. iii, this inelegant sentence is paraphrased as “… raising the mind to general ideas, without neglecting individual facts”.
    • Humboldt, op. cit. (ref. 12), i, p. v. In the translator's preface, p. iii, this inelegant sentence is paraphrased as “… raising the mind to general ideas, without neglecting individual facts”.
    • op. cit , pp. i
    • Humboldt1
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    • See (ref. 2)
    • See Cannon, op. cit. (ref. 2), 77.
    • op. cit , pp. 77
    • Cannon1
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    • “Goethe noted with satisfaction on receiving the first complimentary copy of the ‘Essai politique sur l’île de Cuba’ that the author [Humboldt] had not omitted ‘pointers to the Incommensurable’ in spite of the tremendous amounts of statistics”. (ref. 38)
    • “Goethe noted with satisfaction on receiving the first complimentary copy of the ‘Essai politique sur l’île de Cuba’ that the author [Humboldt] had not omitted ‘pointers to the Incommensurable’ in spite of the tremendous amounts of statistics”. Meyer-Abich, op. cit. (ref. 38), 106.
    • op. cit , pp. 106
    • Meyer-Abich1
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    • Humboldt's map of isothermal lines: A milestone in thematic cartography
    • See
    • See Robinson A. H. and Wallis H. M., “Humboldt's map of isothermal lines: A milestone in thematic cartography”, Cartographic journal, v (1967), 119–23.
    • (1967) Cartographic journal , vol.v , pp. 119-123
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    • Meteorology
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    • Harvey George, “Meteorology”, in the Encyclopaedia metropolitana, quoted by Cannon, op. cit. (ref. 2), 95.
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    • Harvey, G.1    Cannon2
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    • (ref. 47)
    • Humboldt, op. cit. (ref. 47), 32.
    • op. cit , pp. 32
    • Humboldt1
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    • See (ref. 12) 158.
    • See Humboldt, op. cit. (ref. 12), i, 158.
    • op. cit , pp. i
    • Humboldt1
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    • My identification of the distinctiveness of Humboldt's concern with vegetation should not be taken as a denial of the importance of his involvements in floristics and floristic plant geography. Humboldt saw floristic research as an essential prerequisite to the geography of plants, see (ref. 12) iv. For an account of his work in floristic plant geography, see Browne, op. cit. (ref. 20), 59–64.
    • My identification of the distinctiveness of Humboldt's concern with vegetation should not be taken as a denial of the importance of his involvements in floristics and floristic plant geography. Humboldt saw floristic research as an essential prerequisite to the geography of plants, see op. cit. (ref. 12), i, p. iv. For an account of his work in floristic plant geography, see Browne, op. cit. (ref. 20), 59–64.
    • op. cit , pp. i
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    • (ref. 54)
    • Humboldt, op. cit. (ref. 54), 214.
    • op. cit , pp. 214
    • Humboldt1
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    • (ref. 47) See also ref. 63 above
    • Humboldt, op. cit. (ref. 47), 31. See also ref. 63 above.
    • op. cit , pp. 31
    • Humboldt1
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    • Herder, Goethe and the natural type
    • (ref. 54) see also Publications of the English Goethe Society, papers 83–119.
    • Humboldt, op. cit. (ref. 54), 217; see also Nisbet H. B., “Herder, Goethe and the natural type”, Publications of the English Goethe Society, papers, xxxvii (1967), 83–119.
    • (1967) op. cit , vol.xxxvii , pp. 217
    • Humboldt1    Nisbet, H.B.2
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    • For an analysis of the use of ideal typologies by the Göttingen school, see (ref. 64), esp.
    • For an analysis of the use of ideal typologies by the Göttingen school, see Lenoir, op. cit. (ref. 64), esp. 172–3.
    • op. cit , pp. 172-173
    • Lenoir1
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    • Humboldt, op. cit. (ref. 54), 220–1.
    • op. cit , pp. 220-221
    • Humboldt1
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    • (ref. 12) 158.
    • Humboldt, op. cit. (ref. 12), i, 158.
    • op. cit , pp. i
    • Humboldt1
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    • Classification of natural communities
    • For a description of this tradition, see 4–9.
    • For a description of this tradition, see Whittaker R. H., “Classification of natural communities”, Botanical gazette, xxviii (1962), 1–239, pp. 4–9.
    • (1962) Botanical gazette , vol.xxviii , pp. 1-239
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    • (ref. 47)
    • Humboldt, op. cit. (ref. 47), 15.
    • op. cit , pp. 15
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    • Willdenow, op. cit. (ref. 26, 1805), 399.
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    • Willdenow1
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    • (ref. 47)
    • Humboldt, op. cit. (ref. 47), 17.
    • op. cit , pp. 17
    • Humboldt1
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    • See (ref. 64)
    • See Lenoir, op. cit. (ref. 64), 170–3.
    • op. cit , pp. 170-173
    • Lenoir1
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    • See (ref. 67)
    • See Lenoir, op. cit. (ref. 67).
    • op. cit
    • Lenoir1
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    • (ref. 35) 69.
    • Bruhns, op. cit. (ref. 35), i, 69.
    • op. cit , pp. i
    • Bruhns1
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    • (ref. 67) for a lengthy discussion of links between Humboldt and Kant, see op. cit (ref. 19) 34–152, esp. pp. 59–63.
    • Lenoir, op. cit. (ref. 67), 170–4; for a lengthy discussion of links between Humboldt and Kant, see Macpherson, op. cit. (ref. 19), 34–152, esp. pp. 59–63.
    • op. cit , pp. 170-174
    • Lenoir1    Macpherson2
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    • La succession de Le Monnier au Jardin du Roi: Antoine-Laurent de Jussieu et René Louich-Desfontaines
    • (ref. 3) See also Georges Cuvier: Zoologist Cambridge, Mass. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck et son époque Paris 1982 Comptes rendus du 91e Congrès National des Sociétés Savantes, section des sciences Paris 1967 137–52; Morton, op. cit. (ref. 5), 287–361; Stafleu, op. cit. (ref. 5), 321–36.
    • Foucault, op. cit. (ref. 3), 137. See also Coleman W., Georges Cuvier: Zoologist (Cambridge, Mass., 1964); Szyfman L., Jean-Baptiste Lamarck et son époque (Paris, 1982); Laissus J., “La succession de Le Monnier au Jardin du Roi: Antoine-Laurent de Jussieu et René Louich-Desfontaines”, in Comptes rendus du 91e Congrès National des Sociétés Savantes, section des sciences, i (Paris, 1967), 137–52; Morton, op. cit. (ref. 5), 287–361; Stafleu, op. cit. (ref. 5), 321–36.
    • (1964) op. cit , vol.i , pp. 137
    • Foucault1    Coleman, W.2    Szyfman, L.3    Laissus, J.4
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    • For Humboldt's activities in Paris, see (ref. 35), ii see also The Society of Arcueil London
    • For Humboldt's activities in Paris, see Bruhns, op. cit. (ref. 35), ii, 3–47; see also Crosland M., The Society of Arcueil (London, 1967).
    • (1967) op. cit , pp. 3-47
    • Bruhns1    Crosland, M.2
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    • Principles of general physiology: The comparative dimension to British neuroscience in the 1830s and 1840s
    • For other case studies of the impact of Romanticism on nineteenth century science, see Levere T. H., Affinity and matter: Elements of chemical philosophy, 1800–1865 (Oxford, 1971); idem, Poetry realized in Nature: Samuel Taylor Coleridge and early nineteenth century science (Cambridge, 1981); Lenoir T., “Teleology without regrets: The transformation of physiology in Germany, 1790–1847”, Studies in the history and philosophy of science, xii (1981), 293–354; see also ref. 67 above.
    • For other case studies of the impact of Romanticism on nineteenth century science, see Jacyna L. S., “Principles of general physiology: The comparative dimension to British neuroscience in the 1830s and 1840s”, Studies in history of biology, vii (1984), 47–92; Levere T. H., Affinity and matter: Elements of chemical philosophy, 1800–1865 (Oxford, 1971); idem, Poetry realized in Nature: Samuel Taylor Coleridge and early nineteenth century science (Cambridge, 1981); Lenoir T., “Teleology without regrets: The transformation of physiology in Germany, 1790–1847”, Studies in the history and philosophy of science, xii (1981), 293–354; see also ref. 67 above.
    • (1984) Studies in history of biology , vol.vii , pp. 47-92
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    • (ref. 47)
    • Humboldt, op. cit. (ref. 47), 32.
    • op. cit , pp. 32
    • Humboldt1
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    • From Candolle to Croizat: Comments on the history of biogeography
    • It should be noted that the best and most recent history of biogeography (ref. 20), concerns itself only with studies of the distribution of species. It is perhaps no coincidence that Browne also confines herself, in the latter portion of her book, to developments made by English-speaking investigations. She mentions no continental European biogeographer after Alphonse de Candolle. The insularity of British plant geography after has been noted by Journal of the history of biology 1978 Nelson is, however, unable to specify precisely what British biogeography was isolated from. It may be worth investigating whether it was isolated from a distinct Continental tradition of Humboldtian biogeography
    • It should be noted that the best and most recent history of biogeography, Browne, op. cit. (ref. 20), concerns itself only with studies of the distribution of species. It is perhaps no coincidence that Browne also confines herself, in the latter portion of her book, to developments made by English-speaking investigations. She mentions no continental European biogeographer after Alphonse de Candolle. The insularity of British plant geography after 1840 has been noted by Nelson G., “From Candolle to Croizat: Comments on the history of biogeography”, Journal of the history of biology, xi (1978), 269–305. Nelson is, however, unable to specify precisely what British biogeography was isolated from. It may be worth investigating whether it was isolated from a distinct Continental tradition of Humboldtian biogeography.
    • (1840) op. cit , vol.xi , pp. 269-305
    • Browne1    Nelson, G.2
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    • Humboldt is frequently cited in histories of ecology written by practitioners as one of the earliest students of the plant community. See, for example (ref. 88). However, only Saving the prairies: The life cycle of the founding school of American plant ecology, 1895–1955 Berkeley has investigated more fully the significance of Humboldt's plant geography for the history of plant ecology. Tobey's account is, however, flawed by his imposition of a rigid, philosophical, and almost certainly ahistorical dichotomy between idealist and materialist forms of plant geography. Tobey does not therefore exploit the potential of Nordenskiöld's distinction between floristic and vegetational plant geography as different traditions of scientific practice
    • Humboldt is frequently cited in histories of ecology written by practitioners as one of the earliest students of the plant community. See, for example, Whittaker, op. cit. (ref. 88). However, only Tobey R. C., Saving the prairies: The life cycle of the founding school of American plant ecology, 1895–1955 (Berkeley, 1981) has investigated more fully the significance of Humboldt's plant geography for the history of plant ecology. Tobey's account is, however, flawed by his imposition of a rigid, philosophical, and almost certainly ahistorical dichotomy between idealist and materialist forms of plant geography. Tobey does not therefore exploit the potential of Nordenskiöld's distinction between floristic and vegetational plant geography as different traditions of scientific practice.
    • (1981) op. cit
    • Whittaker1    Tobey, R.C.2
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    • Experiment and explanation in the physiology of Bichat and Magendie
    • Albury W. R., “Experiment and explanation in the physiology of Bichat and Magendie”, Studies in history of biology, i (1977), 97–106.
    • (1977) Studies in history of biology , vol.i , pp. 97-106
    • Albury, W.R.1
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    • Cambridge, Mass. Lesch presents his account of Bichat as a refutation of Albury's. However, while the two accounts differ at many points, both stress the fact that the early nineteenth century saw rapid and comprehensive change in the means whereby the functioning of living bodies was investigated. Furthermore, both authors acknowledge the necessity of situating the dramatic changes in physiological practice within the context of a much larger cognitive transformation
    • Lesch J. E., Science and medicine in France: The emergence of experimental physiology, 1790–1885 (Cambridge, Mass., 1984). Lesch presents his account of Bichat as a refutation of Albury's. However, while the two accounts differ at many points, both stress the fact that the early nineteenth century saw rapid and comprehensive change in the means whereby the functioning of living bodies was investigated. Furthermore, both authors acknowledge the necessity of situating the dramatic changes in physiological practice within the context of a much larger cognitive transformation.
    • (1984) Science and medicine in France: The emergence of experimental physiology, 1790–1885
    • Lesch, J.E.1
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    • The metaphor of organization: An historiographical perspective on the biomedical sciences of the early nineteenth century
    • Figlio K. M., “The metaphor of organization: An historiographical perspective on the biomedical sciences of the early nineteenth century”, History of science, xiv (1976), 17–53.
    • (1976) History of science , vol.xiv , pp. 17-53
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    • This has been denied by Dordrecht However, Farber's study area is too narrow to support the general conclusions he offers
    • This has been denied by Farber P. L., The emergence of ornithology as a scientific discipline, 1760–1850 (Dordrecht, 1982). However, Farber's study area is too narrow to support the general conclusions he offers.
    • (1982) The emergence of ornithology as a scientific discipline, 1760–1850
    • Farber, P.L.1
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    • Jacyna argues that the “current preoccupation with … ‘epistemic ruptures’ threatens to obscure the close relations between old and new bodies of knowledge” (ref. 95) This may be true, but it is not necessarily true
    • Jacyna argues that the “current preoccupation with … ‘epistemic ruptures’ threatens to obscure the close relations between old and new bodies of knowledge”, op. cit. (ref. 95), 83. This may be true, but it is not necessarily true.
    • op. cit , pp. 83


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