Epidemiology of injection drug use: New trends and prominent issues

Canadian Journal of Psychiatry

Volumn 61, Issue 3, 2016, Pages 136-144

  Roy, Élise ^a,b   Arruda, Nelson ^a   Bruneau, Julie ^c,d   Jutras Aswad, Didier ^c,d  

^a UNIVERSITÉ DE SHERBROOKE   (Canada)

^b INSTITUT NATIONAL DE SANTÉ PUBLIQUE DU QUÉBEC   (Canada)

^c CENTRE HOSPITALIER DE L UNIVERSITÉ DE MONTRÉAL   (Canada)

^d UNIVERSITÉ DE MONTRÉAL   (Canada)

Author keywords

Drug trends; Drug use patterns; Injection drug use; Injection risk behaviours

Indexed keywords

ILLICIT DRUG; OPIATE;

ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITY DISORDER; BORDERLINE STATE; CANADA; DEPRESSION; DISTRESS SYNDROME; DSM-IV; EPIDEMIOLOGY; HIGH RISK BEHAVIOR; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; INJECTION DRUG USE; PRESCRIPTION; PREVALENCE; REVIEW; SUBSTANCE ABUSE; UNITED STATES; COMPLICATION;

CANADA; HUMANS; SUBSTANCE ABUSE, INTRAVENOUS;

EID: 84964063354     PISSN: 07067437     EISSN: 14970015     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0706743716632503     Document Type: Review

References (101)

1. Gordon RJ, Lowy FD. Bacterial infections in drug users. N Engl J Med. 2005;353(18):1945-1957.
2. Chen CY, Lin KM. Health consequences of illegal drug use. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2009;22(3):287-292.
3. Yuodelis-Flores C, Ries RK. Addiction and suicide: a review. Am J Addict. 2015;24(2):98-104.
4. Connor JP, Gullo MJ, White A, et al. Polysubstance use: diagnostic challenges, patterns of use and health. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2014;27(4):269-275.
5. Rehm J, Gnam W, Popova S, et al. The costs of alcohol, illegal drugs, and tobacco in Canada, 2002. J Stud Alcohol Drugs. 2007;68(6):886-895.
6. Strang J, Bearn J, Farrell M, et al. Route of drug use and its implications for drug effect, risk of dependence and health consequences. Drug Alcohol Rev. 1998;17(2):197-211.
7. Hyman SE. A 28-year old man addicted to cocaine. JAMA. 2001;286(20):2586-2594.
8. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 5th ed. Arlington (VA): American Psychiatric Publishing; 2013.
9. Dinwiddie SH, Cottler L, Compton W, et al. Psychopathology and HIV risk behaviors among injection drug users in and out of treatment. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1996;43(1-2):1-11.
10. Mathers BM, Degenhardt L, Phillips B, et al. Global epidemiology of injecting drug use and HIV among people who inject drugs: a systematic review. Lancet. 2008;372(9651): 1733-1745.
11. Tempalski B, Pouget ER, Cleland CM, et al. Trends in the population prevalence of people who inject drugs in US metropolitan areas 1992-2007. PLoS One. 2013;8(6): e64789.
12. Brady JE, Friedman SR, Cooper HLF, et al. Estimating the prevalence of injection drug users in the US and in large US metropolitan areas from 1992 to 2002. J Urban Health. 2008; 85(3):323-351.
13. Cooper HLF, Brady JE, Friedman SR, et al. Estimating the prevalence of injection drug use among non-Hispanic black and non-Hispanic white adults in large US metropolitan areas over time (1992-2002): estimation methods and prevalence trends. J Urban Health. 2008;85(6):826-856.
14. Pouget ER, Friedman SR, Cleland CM, et al. Estimates of the population prevalence of injection drug users among Hispanic residents of large U.S. metropolitan areas. J Urban Health. 2012;89(3):527-564.
15. Chatterjee S, Tempalski B, Pouget ER, et al. Changes in the prevalence of injection drug use among adolescents and young adults in large U.S. metropolitan areas. AIDS Behav. 2011;15(7):1570-1578.
16. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA). Estimating trends in injecting drug use in Europe using national data on drug treatment admissions: technical report. Lisbon: EMCDDA; June 2015 [accessed July 2, 2015]. http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/attachements.cfm/att-240166-EN-Technical%20report-EMCDDA-Trends%20in%20injecting%20drug%20use-3-2.pdf.
17. Archibald CP, Jayaraman GC, Major C, et al. Estimating the size of hard-to-reach populations: a novel method using HIV testing data compared to other methods. AIDS. 2001; 15(Suppl 3):S41-S48.
18. Remis RS, Strathdee SA, Millson M, et al. Consortium to characterize injection drug users in Montreal, Toronto and Vancouver, Canada: final report. Toronto (ON): University of Toronto; 1998.
19. Advisory Committee on Population Health, Committee on Alcohol and Other Drug Issues, Advisory Committee on AIDS, and Heads of Corrections Working Group on HIV/ AIDS. Reducing the harm associated with injection drug use in Canada. Ottawa (ON): Health Canada; September 2001 [accessed July 7, 2015]. http://publications.gc.ca/collections/Collection/H39-589-2001E.pdf.
20. Public Health Agency of Canada (PHAC). HIV/AIDS EPI updates, chapter 1: national HIV prevalence and incidence estimates for 2011. Ottawa (ON): Centre for Communicable Diseases and Infection Control, PHAC; October 2014 [accessed June 26, 2015]. http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/aidssida/publication/epi/2010/pdf/EN-Chapter1-Web.pdf.
21. Urban Health Research Initiative. Drug situation in Vancouver. Vancouver (BC): British Columbia Center for Excellence in HIV/AIDS; June 2013 [accessed June 4, 2015]. http://www.cfenet.ubc.ca/sites/default/files/uploads/news/releases/war-on-drugs-failing-to-limit-drug-use.pdf.
22. Leclerc P, Vandal A, Fall A, et al. Estimating the size of the population of persons who inject drugs in the island of Montréal, Canada, using a six-source capture-recapture model. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2014;142:174-180.
23. Leclerc P, Morissette C, Tremblay C, et al. Le volet montréalais du Réseau SurvUDI. Volume 3 - Données au 31 mars 2011. Montréal (QC): Direction de santé publique -Agence de la santé et des services sociaux de Montréal; 2013.
24. Golub A, Johnson BD. Cohort changes in illegal drug use among arrestees in Manhattan: from the heroin injection generation to the blunts generation. Subst Use Misuse. 1999; 34(13):1733-1763.
25. Golub A, Johnson BD, Dunlap E. Subcultural evolution and illicit drug use. Addict Res Theory. 2005;13(3):217-229.
26. Golub A, Brownstein HH. Drug generations in the 2000s: an analysis of arrestee data. J Drug Issues. 2013;43(3):10.1177/0022042613475599.
27. Musto DF. The American disease. New Haven (CT): Yale University; 1987.
28. Behrens DA, Caulkins JP, Tragler G, et al. Why present-oriented societies undergo cycles of drug epidemics. J Econ Dyn Control. 2002;26(6):919-936.
29. Stimson GV. The global diffusion of injecting drug use: implications for human immunodeficiency virus infection. Bull Narc. 1993;45(1):3-17.
30. Leclerc P, Gallant S, Morissette C, et al. Surveillance des ITSS et de comportements associés auprès des jeunes de la rue à Montréal. Montréal (QC): Direction de santé publique de l'Agence de la santé et des services sociaux de Montréal;2013 [accessed June 12, 2015]. http://www.dsp.santemontreal.qc.ca/publications/publications-resume.html?tx-wfqbe-pi1%5Buid%5D=1602.
31. Roy É, Haley N, Leclerc P, et al. HIV incidence among street youth in Montreal, Canada. AIDS. 2003;17(7): 1071-1075.
32. Office of the Provincial Health Officer. Decreasing HIV infections among people who use drugs by injection in British Columbia: potential explanations and recommendations for further action. Vancouver (BC): Office of the Provincial Health Officer; 2011 [accessed July 2, 2015]. http://www.health.gov.bc.ca/library/publications/year/2011/decreasing-HIV-in-IDU-population.pdf.
33. Jones CM. Heroin use and heroin use risk behaviors among nonmedical users of prescription opioid pain relievers -United States, 2002-2004 and 2008-2010. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2013;132(1-2):95-100.
34. Lipari RN, Hughes A. The NSDUH report: trends in heroin use in the United States: 2002 to 2013. Rockville (MD): Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality; 2015 [accessed June 2, 2015]. http://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/ default/files/report-1943/ShortReport-1943.pdf.
35. Jones CM, Logan J, Gladden M, et al. Vital signs: demographic and substance use trends among heroin users - United States, 2002-2013. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64(26): 719-725.
36. Jones CM. Frequency of prescription pain reliever nonmedical use: 2002-2003 and 2009-2010. Arch Intern Med. 2012;172(16):1265-1267.
37. Inciardi JA, Surratt HL, Cicero TJ, et al. Prescription opioid abuse and diversion in an urban community. Pain Med. 2009;10(3):537-548.
38. Lankenau SE, Teti M, Silva K, et al. Initiation into prescription opioid misuse amongst young injection drug users. Int J Drug Policy. 2012;23(1):37-44.
39. Mateu-Gelabert P, Guarino H, Jessell L, et al. Injection and sexual HIV/HCV risk behaviors associated with nonmedical use of prescription opioids among young adults in New York City. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2015;48(1):13-20.
40. Mars SG, Bourgois P, Karandinos G, et al. "Every 'never' I ever said came true": transitions from opioid pills to heroin injecting. Int J Drug Policy. 2014;25(2):257-266.
41. Pollini RA, Banta-Breen CJ, Cuevas-Mota J, et al. Problematic use of prescription-type opioids prior to heroin use among young heroin injectors. Subst Abuse Rehabil. 2011;2(1):173-180.
42. Peavy KM, Banta-Green CJ, Kingston S, et al. "Hooked on" prescription-type opiates prior to using heroin: results from a survey of syringe exchange clients. J Psychoactive Drugs. 2012;44(3):259-265.
43. Cicero TJ, Ellis MS, Surratt HL, et al. The changing face of heroin use in the United States: a retrospective analysis of the past 50 years. JAMA Psychiatry. 2014;71(7): 821-826.
44. Havens JR, Lofwall MR, Frost SD, et al. Individual and network factors associated with prevalent hepatitis C infection among rural Appalachian injection drug users. Am J Public Health. 2013;103(1):e44-e52.
45. Zibell JE, Hart-Malloy R, Barry J, et al. Risk factors for HCV infection among young adults in rural New York who inject prescription opioid analgesics. Am J Public Health. 2014;104(11):2226-2232.
46. Fischer B, Argento E. Prescription opioid related misuse, harms, diversion and interventions in Canada: a review. Pain Physician. 2012;15(3 Suppl):ES191-ES203.
47. Fischer B, Keates A, Bühringer G, et al. Non-medical use of prescription opioids and prescription opioid-related harms: why so markedly higher in North America compared to the rest of the world? Addiction. 2014;109(2): 177-181.
48. Firestone M, Fischer B. A qualitative exploration of prescription opioid injection among street-based drug users in Toronto: behaviours, preferences and drug availability. Harm Reduct J. 2008;5:30.
49. Roy É, Arruda N, Bourgois P. The growing popularity of prescription opioid injection in downtown Montréal: new challenges for harm reduction. Subst Use Misuse. 2011;46(9):1142-1150
50. Roy É, Richer I, Arruda N, et al. Patterns of cocaine and opioid co-use and polyroutes of administration among street-based cocaine users in Montréal, Canada. Int J Drug Policy. 2013;24(2):142-149.
51. Fischer B, Cruz MF, Rehm J. Illicit opioid use and its key characteristics: a select overview and evidence from a Canadian multisite cohort of illicit opioid users (OPICAN). Can J Psychiatry. 2006;51(10):624-634.
52. Public Health Agency of Canada. Summary of key findings from I-Track phase 3 (2010-2012). Ottawa (ON): Public Health Agency of Canada; 2014 [accessed June 26, 2015]. http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/aids-sida/publication/reports/itrack-phase-3/assets/pdf/i-track-phase-3-eng.pdf.
53. Roy É, Arruda N, Vaillancourt É, et al. Drug use patterns in the presence of crack in downtown Montréal. Drug Alcohol Rev. 2012;31(1):72-80.
54. Bourgois P. In search of respect: selling crack in El Barrio. New York (NY): Cambridge University Press; 2003.
55. Inciardi JA, Surratt HL, Pechansky F, et al. Changing patterns of cocaine and HIV risks in the south of Brazil. J Psychoactive Drugs. 2006;38(3):305-310.
56. van Ameijden EJ, Coutinho RA. Large decline in injecting drug use in Amsterdam, 1986-1998: explanatory mechanisms and determinants of injecting transitions. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2001;55(5):356-363.
57. Leonard L, DeRubeis E, Pelude L, et al. "I inject less as I have easier access to pipes": injecting, and sharing of cracksmoking materials, decline as safer crack-smoking resources are distributed. Int J Drug Policy. 2008;19(3):255-264.
58. Fairbairn N, Kerr T, Buxton J, et al. Increasing use and associated harms of crystal methamphetamine injection in a Canadian setting. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2007;88(2-3):313-316.
59. Roy É, Haley N, Leclerc P, et al. Drug injection among street youths in Montréal: predictors of initiation. J Urban Health. 2003;80(1):92-105.
60. Wood E, Stoltz JA, Zhang R, et al. Circumstances of first crystal methamphetamine use and initiation of injection drug use among high-risk youth. Drug Alcohol Rev. 2008;27(3):270-276.
61. Werb D, Kerr T, Buxton J, et al. Crystal methamphetamine and initiation of injection drug use among street-involved youth in a Canadian setting. CMAJ. 2013;185(18):1569-1575.
62. Zawilska JB. Mephedrone and other cathinones. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2014;27(4):256-262.
63. Csák R, Demetrovics Z, Rácz J. Transition to injecting 3,4-methylene-dioxy-pyrovalerone (MDPV) among needle exchange program participants in Hungary. J Psychopharmacol. 2013;27(6):559-563.
64. Bruneau J, Roy É, Arruda N, et al. The rising prevalence of prescription opioid injection and its association with hepatitis C incidence among street-drug users. Addiction. 2012;107(7): 1318-1327.
65. Hadland SE, DeBeck K, Kerr T, et al. Prescription opioid injection and risk of hepatitis C in relation to traditional drugs of misuse in a prospective cohort of street youth. BMJ Open. 2014;4(7):e005419.
66. Hagan H, Thiede H, Weiss NS, et al. Sharing of drug preparation equipment as a risk factor for hepatitis C. Am J Public Health. 2001;91(1):42-46.
67. Hagan H, Pouget ER, Williams IT, et al. Attribution of hepatitis C virus seroconversion risk in young injection drug users in 5 US cities. J Infect Dis. 2010;201(3):378-385.
68. Thorpe LE, Ouellet LJ, Hershow R, et al. Risk of hepatitis C virus infection among young adult injection drug users who share injection equipment. Am J Epidemiol. 2002;155(7): 645-653.
69. Hahn JA, Page-Shafer K, Lum PJ, et al. Hepatits C virus seroconversion among young injection drug users: relationships and risks. J Infect Dis. 2002;186(11):1558-1564.
70. Maher L, Jalaludin B, Chant KG, et al. Incidence and risk factors for hepatitis C seroconversion in injecting drug users in Australia. Addiction. 2006;101(10):1499-1508.
71. Lucidarme D, Bruandet A, Ilef D, et al. Incidence and risk factors of HCV and HIV infections in a cohort of intravenous drug users in the North and East of France. Epidemiol Infect. 2004;132(4):699-708.
72. Miller CL, Kerr T, Frankish JC, et al. Binge drug use independently predicts HIV seroconversion among injection drug users: implications for public health strategies. Subst Use Misuse. 2006;41(2):199-210.
73. Harzke AJ, Williams ML, Bowen AM. Binge use of crack cocaine and sexual risk behaviors among African-American, HIV-positive users. AIDS Behav. 2009;13(6):1106-1118.
74. Chaves TV, Sanchez ZM, Ribeiro LA, et al. Crack cocaine craving: behaviours and coping strategies among current and former users. Rev Saùde Pùblica. 2011;45(6):1168-1175.
75. Cheng WS, Garfein RS, Semple SJ, et al. Binge use and sex and drug use behaviors among HIV(-), heterosexual methamphetamine users in San Diego. Subst Use Misuse. 2010;45(1-2):116-133.
76. Semple SJ, Patterson TL, Grant I. Binge use of methamphetamine among HIV-positive men who have sex with men: pilot data and HIV prevention implications. AIDS Educ Prev. 2003;15(2):133-147.
77. Magura S, Kang SY, Nwakeze PC, et al. Temporal patterns of heroin and cocaine use among methadone patients. Subst Use Misuse. 1998;33(12):2441-2467.
78. Tyndall MW, Currie S, Spittal P, et al. Intensive injection cocaine use as the primary risk factor in the Vancouver HIV-1 epidemic. AIDS. 2003;17(6):887-893.
79. Millson P, Myers T, Calzavara L, et al. Regional variation in HIV prevalence and risk behaviours in Ontario injection drug users (IDU). Can J Public Health. 2003;94(6):431-435.
80. Craib KJP, Spittal PM, Wood E, et al. Risk factors for elevated HIV incidence among Aboriginal injection drug users in Vancouver. CMAJ. 2003;168(1):19-24.
81. Conner KR, Pinquart M, Duberstein PR. Meta-analysis of depression and substance use and impairment among intravenous drug users (IDUs). Addiction. 2008;103(4):524-534.
82. Heimer R, Barbour R, Palacios WR, et al. Associations between injection risk and community disadvantage among suburban injection drug users in southwestern Connecticut, USA. AIDS Behav. 2014;18(3):452-463.
83. Lévesque A, Bruneau J, Jutras-Aswad D, et al. Psychological distress increases needle sharing among cocaine users: results from the COSMO study. J Addict Res Ther. 2014; S10:003.
84. Stein MD, Solomon DA, Herman DS, et al. Depression severity and drug injection HIV risk behaviors. Am J Psychiatry. 2003;160(9):1659-1662.
85. Mackesy-Amiti ME, Donenberg GR, Ouellet LJ. Psychiatric correlates of injection risk behavior among young people who inject drugs. Psychol Addict Behav. 2014;28(4):1089-1095.
86. Wild TC, el-Guebely N, Fischer B,et al. Comorbid depression among untreated illicit opioid users; results from multisite Canadian study. Can J Psychiatry. 2005;50(9):512-518.
87. Golub ET, Strathdee SA, Bailey SL, et al. Distributive syringe sharing among young adult injection drug users in five U.S. cities. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2007;91(Suppl 1):S30-S38.
88. Lundgren LM, Amodeo M, Chassler D. Mental health status, drug treatment use, and needle sharing among injection drug users. AIDS Educ Prev. 2005;17(6):525-539.
89. Reyes JC, Robles RR, Colón HM, et al. Severe anxiety symptomatology and HIV risk behavior among Hispanic injection drug users in Puerto Rico. AIDS Behav. 2007;11(1):145-150.
90. Armstrong G, Jorm AF, Samson L, et al. Association of depression, anxiety, and suicidal ideation with high-risk behaviors among men who inject drugs in Delhi, India. J Acquir Immun Defic Syndr. 2013;64(5):502-510.
91. Roy É, Jutras-Aswad D, Bertrand K, et al. Anxiety, mood disorders and injection behaviors among cocaine users: results from the COSMO study. Am J Addiction. 24(7): 654-660.
92. Disney E, Kidorf M, Kolodner K, et al. Psychiatric comorbidity is associated with drug use and HIV risk in syringe exchange participants. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2006;194(8): 577-583.
93. Compton WM, Cottler LB, Shillington AM, et al. Is antisocial personality disorder associated with increased HIV risk behaviors in cocaine users? Drug Alcohol Depend. 1995;37(1): 37-43.
94. Darke S, Williamson A, Ross J, et al. Borderline personality disorder, antisocial personality disorder and risk-taking among heroin users: findings from the Australian Treatment Outcome Study (ATOS). Drug Alcohol Depend. 2004;74(1): 77-83.
95. Werb D, Buxton J, Shoveller J, et al. Interventions to prevent the initiation of injection drug use: a systematic review. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2013;133(2):669-676.
96. Roy É, Denis V, Gutiérrez N, et al. Evaluation of a media campaign aimed at preventing initiation into drug injection among street youth. Drug Educ Prev Polic. 2007;14(5): 401-414.
97. Des Jarlais CD, Casriel C, Friedman SR, et al. USA transitions report. AIDS and the transition to illicit drug injection-results of a randomized trial prevention program. Br J Addict. 1992;87(3):493-498.
98. Hunt N, Stillwell G, Taylor C, et al. Evaluation of a brief intervention to prevent initiation into injecting. Drug Educ Prev Polic. 1998;5(2):185-194.
99. Strike C, Rotondi M, Kolla G, et al. Interrupting the social processes linked with initiation of injection drug use: results from a pilot study. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2014;137(1):48-54.
100. Kelley MS, Chitwood DD. Effects of drug treatment for heroin sniffers: a protective factor against moving to injection? Soc Sci Med. 2004;58(10):2083-2092.
101. Noël L, Dubé PA, Tremblay PY, et al. Matériel d'injection, réduire les risques chez les injecteurs de médicaments opioïdes. Québec (QC): Institut national de santé publique du Québec. Forthcoming.