German-Soviet medical co-operation and the institute for racial research, 1927-c. 1935

German History

Volumn 10, Issue 2, 1992, Pages 177-206

  Weindling, Paul ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

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EID: 84963108757     PISSN: 02663554     EISSN: 1477089X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/gh/10.2.177     Document Type: Article

References (286)

1. R. E.
2. W. D. Smith, The Ideological Origins of Nazi Imperialism (New York and Oxford, 1986), pp.
3. Smith, ‘Friedrich Ratzel and the Origins of Lebensraum’, German Studies Review, 3 (1980), 51-68.
4. P. J. Weindling, ‘German-Soviet Co-operation in Science: the Case of the Laboratory for Racial Research’, Nuncius, 1 (1986), 103-9.
5. The laboratory was also mentioned in P. J. Weindling, ‘Weimar Eugenics in Social Context; the Founding of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Anthropology, Human Heredity and Eugenics’, Annals of Science, 42 (1985), 303-18.
6. I am grateful to Mark Adams for prompting me to investigate its activities.
7. B. D. Wolfe, The Bridge and the Abyss. The Troubled Friendship of Max Gorky and V. I. Lenin (London, 1967), pp. 108-15.
8. G. M.
9. M. R. Marrus, The Unwanted. European Refugees in the Twentieth Century (New York and Oxford, 1985), pp. 54-5.
10. League of Nations Archives, Palais des Nations Geneva (hereafter LN) R 12B/816/7901, Typhus Commission of Inquiry in Poland.
11. J. Long, The German-Russians.
12. J.-F.
13. F. C.
14. A. Eisfeld, ‘Autonome Sozialistische Sowjetrepublic der Wolgadeutschen: Chance oder Gefahrenherd?’, Nationalitäten und Regionalprobleme in Osteuropa (Cologne, 1987), pp.
15. I. Fleischhauer and B. Pinkus, The Soviet Germans.
16. J. Long, Front Privileged to Dispossessed: The Volga Germans, 1860-1917 (Lincoln, Nebraska, and London, 1988).
17. Among the more propagandistic studies are: R.
18. K.-H. Ruffmann, Die Russlanddeutschen.
19. S. Steenberg, Die Russland-Deutschen.
20. K.-D. Schulz-Vobach, Die Deutschen in Osten. Von Balkan bis Siberien (Hamburg, 1989).
21. O. Figes, Peasant Russia, CivilWar. The Volga Countryside in Revolution 1917-1921 (Oxford, 1989), pp. 272-3, 351.
22. F.
23. Nansen, Russia and Peace (London, 1923), pp.
24. Internationale Hilfskomitee für Russland
25. Marrus, Unwanted, pp.
26. R. Abel, ‘Von Hungersnot und Seuchen in Russland’, Münchener medizinische Wochenschrift, 70 (1923), 485-7, 633-5.
27. W. Güthoff, ‘Zur Epidemiologie und Bekämpfung des Seuchengeschehens in Sowjetrussland von 1918-1924. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der deutsch-sowjetischen medizinischen Beziehungen’ (dissertation A, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 1985), p.
28. W. Duranty, Russia Reported (London, 1934), pp. 23-43.
29. W. Duranty, Russia Reported (London, 1934), pp. 23-43.
30. LN R 824/12B/15255, Epidemics in Russia, Reports of N. White.
31. Hilger remained at the Moscow embassy until 22 June 1941, and then was a senior civil servant in the German Foreign Office.
32. G. Hilger and A. G. Meyer, The Incompatible Allies. A Memoir.
33. H. Dirksen, Moscow, Tokyo, London. Twenty Years of German Foreign Policy (London, 1951), pp.
34. H. Dirksen, Moscow, Tokyo, London.
35. R. Hilberg, The Destruction of the European Jews (New York and London, 1985), pp.
36. H. Krausnick and H. H. Wilhelm, Die Truppe des Weltanschauungskrieges (Stuttgart, 1981), p.
37. A Dallin, German Rule in Russia 1941-1945 (London, 1957), pp.
38. C. Andreyev, Vlasov and the Russian Liberation Movement (Cambridge, 1987), p. 41.
39. For Hilger and the Nazi-Soviet pact see G. L. Weinberg, Germany and the Soviet Union, 1939-1941 (Leiden, 1954), pp. 33-6.
40. Hilger and Meyer, Incompatible Allies, pp. 40-8.
41. Bundesarchiv Aussenstellen Potsdam (hereafter BAP), 15.01/9398, Bl. 45-6, memo of 1 Oct. 1921, Bl. 136-43.
42. Hilger and Meyer, Incompatible Allies, p. 191.
43. Among the extensive literature on the German-Soviet military co-operation see G. Castellan, ‘Reichswehr et Armée Rouge, 1920- 1939’, J. B. Duroselle (ed.), Les Relations Germano-soviétiques de 1933 à 1939 (Paris, 1954), pp.
44. H. W.
45. H.
46. F. L. Carsten, The Reichswehr and Politics 1918-1933 (Oxford, 1966).
47. Hilger and Meyer, Incompatible Allies, p. 194.
48. BAP 0902/350, Deutsche Botschaft Moskau, Rotes Kreuz, Bl. 312-18 for the text of the agreement between the German and Russian Red Cross; Hilger and Meyer, Incompatible Allies, pp. 195-6.
49. The doctors included Peter Miihlens, Ernst Nauck, Otto Fischer from Hamburg, Wolfgang Gärtner (Privatdozent in hygiene at Kiel), G. Hellmann (a Berlin neurologist), H. Karstens, Mertens (an ophthalmologist from Wiesbaden), Hans Sauer (a surgeon from the St Georg Hospital, Hamburg), and Heinrich Zeiss. Gärtner died in Kazan. The chemist was Josef Hal- berman and the laboratory assistant was Fritz Gössler (both from Hamburg). The ethnic German propagandists Aurich and Loresch were among the seven nursing orderlies. See reports by Mühlens in Staatsarchiv Hamburg (hereafter STAH) CCVI, No. 11, vol. 1, Fasc. 64. For salaries see Senat Cl VII, Lit Q b Nr 8 b, Bd 15, Fasc. 19.
50. Güthoff, ‘Zur Epidemiologie’, p.
51. P.
52. LN R 824 12B/26009X/15255, Haigh to Rajchman, 17 Feb. 1922, ‘Visit to German Red Cross Sanitary Train’; R. 825, 12B/29911X/15255, Zeiss to Zinsser, 30 July 1923, and Zeiss, ‘Beobachtungen über die augenblicklich in den Wolgakolonien herrschende Malaria’.
53. LN R 825, 12B/29911X/15255, Zeiss on 29 Dec. 1921. On Zeiss’s criticism of a lack of official concern with Afghanistan see BAP 0902/394, Bl. 10-14, Zeiss letter of 7 Sept. 1923.
54. STAH 132-1 III, Senatskommission f.d. Reichs- und auswärtigen Angelegenheiten, VIII A 33, Bd 1, Reise Dr Mühlens.
55. M. Burleigh, Germany Turns Eastwards. A Study of Ostforschung in the Third Reich (Cambridge, 1988), p. 33 for scientists and other academics. Burleigh’s analysis of the interactions between ideology and academic interests is of fundamental importance for this study of German medical scientists.
56. Zeiss died in Soviet custody at Vladimir in 1949 after being arrested in Berlin in September 1945.
57. For obituaries see P.
58. H. Harmsen, ‘In memoriam Prof. Dr. med. Heinz Zeiss’, Zentralblatt für Bakteriologie, Parasitenkunde, Infektionskrankheiten und Hygiene, 168 (1957), 161-4.
59. See also STAH 352 10 261, Gesundheitsverwaltung, Personalakten Philipp Heinrich Albert Zeiss.
60. F.
61. F. Lenz, ‘Die nordische Rasse in der Blutmischung unserer östlichen Nachbaren’, Osteuropäische Zukunft.
62. M. Kitchen, ‘Militarism and the Development of Fascist Ideology: The Political Ideas of Colonel Max Bauer, 1916-1918’, Central European History, 7 (1975), 199-220.
63. W. His, Die Front der Ärzte (Bielefeld and Leipzig, 1931), pp.
64. Viktor Schilling in Aleppo, where he ran a bacteriological laboratory and undertook serological research, p. 169 concerning the Armenian massacre. For Zeiss’s war service with Schilling see Bundesarchiv Koblenz (hereafter BAK), R 86/744, Bl. 25-30, Heinrich Zeiss, Lebenslauf, in letter of Zeiss to Reichsminister des Innern, 4 Apr. 1933. On Aleppo as pivotal in the massacre see G. Chaland and Y. Ternon, The Armenians. From Genocide to Resistance (London, 1983), pp. 17, 63.
65. For German military doctors and the Turkish army see H. Becker, Äeskulap zwischen Reichsadler und Halbmond (Herzogenrath, 1990).
66. Mühlens, ‘Hunger- und Seuchenkatastrophe’, pp. 44-5.
67. Sütterlin was to join the Nazi Party in 1933 when he became medical officer for Berlin.
68. M. Stürzbecher, ‘Von den Berliner Stadtmedizinalräten, Stadtmedizinaldirektoren und Senatsdirektoren für das Gesundheitswesen’, Berliner Ärzteblatt, 94 (1981), 937-9.
69. H. Zeiss, ‘Die Tularämie in Russland. Vorkommen und Forschungen von 1928-1931’ in BAP 15.01/26301, Bl 10-15.
70. H. Zeiss, ‘Die Tularämie in Russland. Vorkommen und Forschungen von 1928-1931’ in BAP 15.01/26301, Bl 10-15.
71. BAK, R 73/221, Notgemeinschaft der Deutschen Wissenschaft; ST AH CCV1, No. 11, vol. 1, fasc. 64, Zeiss, Denkschrift über das bakteriologische Zentrallaboratium des Deutschen Roten Kreuzes in Moskau.
72. BAP 15.01/9398 Reichsministerium des Innern. Akten betreffend: das Hilfswerk des deutschen Roten Kreuzes für Russland, Bd 1 vom 19. August 1921 bis 31. März 1922, Bl. 496- 7, ‘Die Notwendigkeit eines deutschen medizinischen Forschungsinstitutes in Russland’.
73. BAP 0902/350 Bl. 222-3, Zeiss to Semashko, 10 Oct. 1924.
74. BAP 0902/394 Bl. 18, Letter of 24 Sept. 1923, Bl. 23, 439, DRK letter 5 Nov. 1924.
75. N. A. Semaschko, ‘An die Leser’, Deutsch-Russische Medizinische Zeitschrift 1 (Oct. 1925), 1-2. Vol. 4 was published in 1928.
76. Bayer-Archiv Leverkusen, Pharma Verkauf Länderberichte Signatur: 167/6 Vertretungsbezirk Russland. Signatur: 1/6.6.18.2 Russland. For Zeiss and IGERUSSKO see BAP 0902/420, Bl. 385, concerning an anti-worm treatment; BAP 0902/419, Bl. 3, 4, 9, concerning camel disease, Dec. 1930.
77. R. E.
78. W. Beitel and J. Nötzold, Deutsch-sowjetische Wirtschaftsbeziehungen in der Zeit der Weimarer Republik (Baden-Baden, 1979), p. 121.
79. For conditions on this estate see BAP 0902/418, Bl. 81, report by Bederke, dated 13 Sept. 1929.
80. O.
81. Dirksen, Moscow, pp. 123, 145.
82. STAH 352 8/9, Bernhard-Nocht-Institut, 23 Band 1, Russland Hunger-Hilfe, letter of Hilger to Mühlens, 6 Jan. 1923.
83. BAP 0902/349, Bl. 23, report of 19 July 1924 by the German consul, Kharkov.
84. BAP 0902/349, Bl. 187.
85. BAP 0902/349, Bl. 216,227. Zeiss distributed the equipment of the bacteriological laboratory to the medical faculty in Saratov, the German Volga Republic, the microbiological institute Saratov, and the bacteriological central laboratory of the Red Army.
86. Archiv der Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin (hereafter AHUB), Zeiss papers, box 4, Zeiss to Semashko, 19 May 1925, offering services to the Red Army.
87. BAK R 86/744, Bl. 25-30, Zeiss Lebenslauf.
88. Voigt, Hoetzsch, p. 321, letter of Hoetzsch to Schmidt-Ott, 1 Nov. 1926, on Zeiss as ‘wissenschaftlich und national so wertvoll’; BAK R 73/223, Bl. 104-8, Zeiss to German embassy Moscow, 1 July 1931.
89. H. Hamperl, Werdegang und Lebensweg eines Pathologen (Stuttgart and New York, 1972), p. 116.
90. BAP 0902/420: Bl. 218-28, Zeiss on medical education, 3 Sept. 1931; Bl. 267, concerning Zeiss’s report on paratyphus; Bl. 276-83, Zeiss on maternal and infant welfare, 4 June 1931; Bl. 286-301, Zeiss on the prevention of epidemics; Bl. 303, Zeiss on the history of medicine.
91. S. G. Solomon, ‘Social Hygiene and Soviet Public Health’, S. G. Solomon and J. F. Hutchinson (eds.). Health and Society in Revolutionary Russia (Bloomington and Indianapolis, 1990), pp. 175-99.
92. M. B. Adams, ‘Eugenics in Russia, 1900-1940’, in Adams (ed.), The Wellborn Science, pp.
93. M. B. Adams, ‘Eugenics as Social Medicine in Revolutionary Russia. Prophets, Patrons, and the Dialectics of Discipline-Building’, Solomon and Hutchinson, Health and Society, pp. 200-23.
94. N. B. Weissman, ‘Origins of Soviet Health Administration. Narkomzdrav, 1918-1928’, in Solomon and Hutchinson (eds.), Health and Society, pp. 97-120.
95. K.-D. Thomann, ‘“Die medizinische Wissenschaft ist international”. Zur Zusammenarbeit von deutschen und sowjetischen Ärzten während der Weimarer Republik’, in W. Beck, G. Eisner, and H. Mausbach (eds.), Pax Medica.
96. D. Tutzke, ‘Alfred Grotjahn und die junge Sowjetunion’, Zeitschrift für die gesamte Hygiene, 8 (1973), 596-9.
97. L. Fischer, The Life of Lenin (London, 1964), p. 600.
98. J. Richter, ‘Medicine and Politics in Soviet-German Relations in the 1920s. A Contribution to Lenin’s Pathobiography’, XXXIInd International Congress on the History of Medicine (1990), pp.
99. H. E. Müller-Dietz, ‘Deutsche Ärzte bei V. I. Lenin’, Aus Dreissig Jahren OsteuropaForschung. Gedenkschrift für Dr. phil. Georg Kennen (1919-1984) (Berlin, 1984), pp.
100. N. Tumarkin, Lenin Lives! The Lenin Cult in Soviet Russia (Cambridge, Mass., 1963), pp. 112-33, ch. 4, ‘Illness and immortality’.
101. Hilger and Meyer, Incompatible Allies, pp. 150-1.
102. For the high politics of the pro-Soviet faction see P. Krüger, Die Aussenpolitik der Republik von Weimar (Darmstadt, 1985), pp. 151-83, 280-5.
103. Ludwig Aschoff. Ein Gelehrtenleben in Briefe an die Familie (Freiburg i. B., 1966), pp.
104. O. Lubarsch, Ein bewegtes Gelehrtenleben (Berlin, 1931), pp.
105. BAP 0902/393: Bl. 49, letter of Aschoff to Hilger, 5 Oct. 1923, confirming that he has contacted Zeiss; Bl. 189, Zeiss to Aschoff, 24 Aug. 1923, concerning Aschoff’s and Lubarsch’s visit.
106. Siebenter Bericht der Notgemeinschaft der Deutschen Wissenschaft (1928).
107. AHUB, Zeiss papers, box 4, NDW, Aschoff to Zeiss, 28 Dec. 1928. Aschoff’s original scheme involved Hamperl.
108. J. Haslam, Soviet Foreign Policy 1930-1933. The Impact of the Depression (London, 1983), pp. 118-19.
109. W. Kirsche, Oskar Vogt 1870-1959. Leben und Werk und dessen Beziehung zur Hirnforschung der Gegenwart. Ein Beitrag zur 25.
110. J. Hallervorden, ‘Der Berliner Kreis’, 50 Jahre Neuropathologie in Deutschland 1885-1935 (Stuttgart, 1961), pp.
111. R. Hassler, ‘Oskar Vogt zum Gedächtnis’, Archiv Psychiatrie, Nervenkrankheiten, 200 (1960), 239-56.
112. Vogt has recently gained in notoriety with the novel by Tilman Spengler, Lenins Hirn (Hamburg, 1991).
113. Voigt, Hoetzsch, pp. 201-6, 221, 248, 320. For Ostforschung after 1925 see Burleigh, Germany Turns Eastwards, pp.
114. J. Nötzold, ‘Die deutsch-sowjetischen Wissenschaftsbeziehungen’, in R. Vierhaus and B. Brocke (eds.), Forschung im Spannungsfeld von Politik und Gesellschaft. Geschichte und Struktur der Kaiser-Wilhelm-/Max-Planck-Gesellschaft (Stuttgart, 1990), pp. 778-801.
115. Hilger and Meyer, Incompatible Allies, p.
116. J. Richterand, M. Lindemann, ‘Die Berliner und die Moskauer Schule der Architektonischen Hirnforschung’, Actes, Proceedings, XXX International Congress of the History of Medicine (Düsseldorf, 1988), pp. 923-36.
117. The Lenin Institute for Brain Research is omitted from Tumarkin, Lenin Lives!.
118. Historisches Archiv Friedrich Krupp, FAH 4E 266, Bl 245-7, Wallroth (Ministerialdirektor of the Foreign Ministry) to O. Hergt, 26 May 1925. On Vogt’s interview with the Kultusminister, Vogt papers, Vogt to Bohlen, 16 Dec. 1925.
119. R.
120. J. Richter, ‘Oskar Vogt, der Begründer des Moskower Staatsinstituts für Hirnforschung’, Psychiatrie, Neurologie und medizinische Psychologie, 28 (1976), 385-95.
121. Richter, ‘Medicine and Politics’, pp. 10-13.
122. Historisches Archiv Friedrich Krupp, FAH 4E 266: Bl 258, Aufzeichnung des Kuratoriums des Kaiser-Wilhelm-Instituts für Hirnforschung, 16 Dec. 1924; Bl 241, Letter of Vogt to von Bohlen, 30 May 1925; Bl 183, letter of von Bohlen to Vogt, 15 Dec. 1925; Bl 175, same to same, 17 Dec. 1925. Vogt papers, Düsseldorf: Vogt to von Bohlen, 14 and 16 Dec. 1925; von Bohlen to Vogt, 2 July 1926.
123. W. Ruge, Weimar-Republik auf Zeit (Berlin, 1982), pp. 182, 269-70.
124. BAP 0902/349, Bl. 242-3, Schmidt-Ott, letter of 27 Mar. 1923.
125. G. Rosenfeld, Sowjetunion und Deutschland 1922-1933 (Cologne, 1984), pp. 182-233, for an overview of cultural activities from an East German perspective.
126. BAP: 0902/414, Bl. 43-4, Brockdorff-Rantzau to Foreign Office, 30 Jan 1925; 0902/349, Bl. 155-7, Brockdorff-Rantzau to Foreign Office, 20 June 1924.
127. BAP 0902/394, Bl. 369-70, Zeiss to German embassy Moscow, 10 July 1924.
128. BAK R 73/291.
129. BAP 0902/397, Bl. 152-8, protocol of meeting on 1 Oct.
130. Schmidt-Ott, Erlebtes und Erstrebtes 1860-1950 (Wiesbaden, 1952), p.
131. Voigt, Hoetzsch, p. 201.
132. D. Grainin, Der Genetiker (Cologne, 1988).
133. O. Vogt (ed.), Die Naturwissenschaft in der Sowjet-Union, Vorträge ihrer Vertreter während der ‘Russischen Naturforscherwoche’ in Berlin 1927 (Königsberg and Berlin, 1929).
134. BAK R 73/234. The polar expedition of Wölken was to leave in July 1932 and return in autumn 1933.
135. O. Vogt, ‘1. Bericht über die Arbeiten des Moskauer Staatsinstituts für Hirnforschung’, Journal für Psychologie und Neurologie, 40 (1929), 108-18.
136. Nötzold, ‘Wissenschaftsbeziehungen’, p. 785.
137. BAK R 73/232.
138. Among the honorary members of the German Society for Blood Group Research were V. Bunak (Professor of Anthropology, Moscow), W. Rubaschkin (protozoa research, Charkow), W. Schamoff (surgery, Charkow), Boris Wischnewski (office of blood group research, Anthropological Museum, Leningrad).
139. Askanazy, ‘Internationale Gesellschaft für geographische Pathologie’, Centralblatt für allgemeine Pathologie und pathologische Anatomie, 42 (1928).
140. BAP: 0902/423, Deutsches Krankenhaus in Tiflis 1923-1931; 0902/350, Bl. 265, letter from the German consul Tiflis, 14 Sept. 1924; 0902/395, Bl. 148-50. Ludwig Aschoff, p. 391.
141. AHUB: Zeiss papers, Box 4, NDW 1925-8, letter of Aschoff to Zeiss, 28 Dec. 1928; Box 11, Medical Geography, correspondence with Rabl, 22 June 1933. Ludwig Aschoff, p. 391.
142. Historisches Archiv Friedrich Krupp FAH 4E 266, Bl. 187-9, Vogt to Brockdorff-Rantzau, 14 Dec. 1925.
143. BAP 0902/400, Bl. 199-200, Brockdorff-Rantzau to the Foreign Office, Berlin, 29 Sept. 1927.
144. BAP 0902/400, Bl. 199-200, Brockdorff-Rantzau to the Foreign Office, Berlin, 29 Sept. 1927.
145. Vogt papers, Oskar-Vogt-Institut, Düsseldorf, ‘Information f. d. Deutsche Mitglieder des deutsch-russischen Komitees f. Rassenforschung’.
146. Vogt papers, file no. 32: Sarkissov to Vogt, 10 Jan. 1929, complaining that Arndt regarded Sarkissov as head; Vogt to Sarkissov, 13 Apr. 1929.
147. For an inventory of equipment in 1929 see BAP 0902/417, Bl. 37-44.
148. BAK R 73/226, Finanzierung. Aktennotizen 4 June 1929; R 73/228, Meeting of 8 Oct. 1932.
149. BAP 0902/421, Bl. 242-5, Nauck to NDW, Vogt, Aschoff, and the German embassy, Moscow, 21 May 1933.
150. The Moscow address was Bolschaja Jakimanke 43.
151. Schmidt-Ott, Erlebtes, pp. 226, 232, 234, 242, on Tiflis meeting and discussions with Semashko in 1928. The Georgians included D. Kanelski (education commissar), Iwane Franqulian (deputy health commissar, Tiflis), Iwane Koniaschwill (medical climatologist, Tiflis), Iwan Mtschedichze (Tropical Institute, Baku).
152. BAK R 73/225, Protocol of meeting, 13 Oct. 30.
153. BAK R 73/227, 28 Oct. 1930. Elfter Bericht der NDW (1931-2).
154. H.-J. Arndt, Der Kropf in Russland.
155. Veröffentlichungen aus der Kriegs-, Gewerbe und Konstitutionspathologie, 7 no. 3-4.
156. H. Hamperl, ‘Beiträge zur geographischen Pathologie unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Verhältnisse in Sowjet-Russland und des runden Magengeschwürs’, Ergebnisse der allgemeinen pathologischen Anatomie, 26 (1932), 353-422.
157. E. G. Nauck, Beiträge zu Pathologie und Epidemiologie der Pellegra.
158. Archiv für Schiffs- und Tropenhygiene, 37 (1933), Beiheft 2.
159. R.
160. Archiv für Schiffs-und Tropenhygiene, 38 (1934), Beiheft 1 (Ergebnisse der deutsch-russischen Rassenforschungsarbeitsstelle).
161. Vogt papers, file no. 32, Koltzov to Vogt, 9 May 1928, concerning racial pathology.
162. Schmidt-Ott, Erlebtes, p.
163. BAK R 73/225, Aschoff to Schmidt-Ott, 22 Oct. 1930; Ludwig Aschoff, pp. 393-409. Visits were made to the German colony of Helenendorf near Baku, where Professor Mühlmann and Dr Seemann (the father of a Leningrad pathologist) were contacted.
164. Hamperl, Werdegang und Lebensweg, pp. 126-35.
165. For Schmidt-Ott’s tour of 1928 and contacts with ethnic Germans, see Schmidt-Ott, Erlebtes, pp. 228, 241-2.
166. BAP 0902/420, Bl. 234-44, report by Mayer and Nauck.
167. P. J. Weindling, Health, Race and German Politics between National Unification and Nazism (Cambridge, 1989), pp.
168. Vogt papers, file no. 32, letter, 26 Feb. 1929, from the Paris office to Vogt concerning a grant of $250,000 to Vogt.
169. Ludwig Aschoff, pp. 391-2; BAK R 73/227, Besprechung, 8 Oct. 1932.
170. H. Pogge von Strandmann, ‘Industrial Primacy in German-Russian Relations at the End of the Weimar Republic’, in R. J. Bessel and E. J. Feuchtwanger (eds.), Social Change and Political Development in Weimar Germany (London, 1981), pp. 241-67.
171. Nauck, NSDAP Nr 4178797, joined 1 May 1937; Rabl, NSDAP Nr 3982662, joined 1 May 1937. There is no record of Hamperl as having joined the NSDAP. Arndt died in 1932.
172. STAH 352, 8/a Berhard Nocht Institut, 10/2 Martin Mayer.
173. Reche joined the NSDAP in 1937 and Zeiss in Dec. 1931.
174. O. Reche, ‘Blutgruppenforschung und Anthropologie’, Volk und Rasse, 3/1 (1928), 1-12.
175. For Reche’s racial interests in the east see Burleigh, Germany Turns Eastwards, pp.
176. P. M. H. Mazumdar, ‘Blood and Soil: the Serology of the Aryan Racial State’, Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 64 (1990), 187-219.
177. BAK R 73/226, memorandum of Vogt, 2 Dec.
178. C. Davis, ‘Economics of Soviet Public Health, 1928-1932’, in Solomon and Hutchinson, Health and Society, pp. 156, 166.
179. For the context of nationalism see J. E. Mace, ‘The Famine of 1932-1933: A Watershed in the History of Soviet Nationality Policy’, in H. R. Huttenbach (ed.), Soviet Nationality Policies (London, 1990).
180. Castellan, ‘Reichswehr et Armée Rouge’, pp. 185-7.
181. On Stoltzenberg see H. Liepmann, Death from the Skies. A Study of Gas and Microbial Warfare (London, 1937), pp.
182. L. F. Haber, The Poisonous Cloud. Chemical Warfare in the First World War (Oxford, 1986), pp. 287, 305-6, 316.
183. Speidel, ‘Reichswehr und Rote Armee’, pp. 7-45.
184. Hamperl, Werdegang und Lebensweg, p. 101.
185. R. E.
186. L. Z. Saunders, Veterinary Pathology in Russia, 1860-1930 (Ithaca and London, 1980), pp.
187. BAP 0902/419, Bl. 237, letter of Zeiss, 11 Apr. 1930, reporting that the researcher Skriabin had a German mother.
188. H. Zeiss, ‘Das Reichsinstitut für Epidemiologie und Mikrobiologie für den Südosten Russlands in Saratow an der Wolga’, Münchener Medizinische Wochenschrift, 71 (1924), 1468-9.
189. According to this periodical there were 102 professors of medicine in Saratov. BAP 0908/351, Bl. 317, Brockdorff-Rantzau to Zeiss, 1 Oct. 1925, concerning a visit to Saratov. BAP 0902/419, Bl. 268, letter of Zeiss, 11 Feb. 1930, concerning the German refusal to finance this post. AHUB Zeiss papers, box 4 NDW: Zeiss to Schmidt-Ott, 24 Sept. 1925; Aschoff to Zeiss on Saratov scheme, 28 Dec. 1928.
190. Adams, ‘Eugenics as Social Medicine’, p. 208, and ‘Eugenics in Russia’, p. 166. Among members with German names was the plant-breeder G. K. Meister. The Society was independent until late 1925.
191. Voigt, Hoetzsch, p. 188, concerning Schmidt-Ott’s interest in Zeiss’s visit to Saratov in March 1926. BAP: 0902/401, Bl. 311-2, letter from Zeiss, 7 Feb. 1928; 0902/402, Bl. 61, note of 31 Mar. 1932 on the disappearance of Dinges in 1931 and on the persecution of other Volga German academics.
192. Walter Kuhn, ‘Die Russlanddeutschen’, Volk und Rasse, 6/1 (1931), 1-12.
193. BAP 15.01, Reichsministerium des Innern, Nr 9421, betr. menschliche Vererbungslehre und Bevölkerungskunde, Bl. 172; BAK R 73/221.
194. BAP 15.01, Reichsministerium des Innern, Nr 9421, betr. menschliche Vererbungslehre und Bevölkerungskunde, Bl. 172; BAK R 73/221.
195. W. C. Boyd, ‘Blood Groups’, Tabulae Biologicae, (1939), 113-17, 240.
196. I am grateful to Bill Schneider, Indiana, for bringing these data to my attention.
197. BAP: 0902/419: Bl. 57, report on animal breeding in the Caucasus; Bl. 109, 8 Aug. 1930, report on the Volga German Republic; 0902/418: Bl. 81, letter of Bederke, 13 Sept. 1929; Bl. 158-238, report on Soviet veterinary research.
198. Hamperl, Werdegang und Lebensweg, p.
199. BAK R 73/226.
200. BAK R 73/225, minutes of the Tiflis meeting of 13 Oct. 1930.
201. Adams, ‘Eugenics in Russia’, pp. 188-99.
202. For the link between Mendelism and Nazism see K. H. Roth, ‘Schöner neuer Mensch. Der Paradigmenwechsel der klassischen Genetik und seine Auswirkungen auf die Bevölkerungsbiologie des “Dritten Reiches”’, in H. Kaupen-Haas (ed.), Der Griff nach der Bevölkerung. Aktualität und Kontinuität nazistischer Beuölkerungspolitik (Nördlingen, 1986), p.
203. B. MüllerHill, Tödliche Wissenschaft. Die Aussonderung von Juden, Zigeunern und Geisteskranken 1933- 1945 (Reinbek bei Hamburg, 1984).
204. For the concept of the final solution of the social problem see Beiträge zur nationalsozialistischen Gesundheits- und Sozialpolitik, 1-9 (1985-91).
205. For the background to the ideological commitments of Bukharin and Lunacharsky see C. Read, Culture and Power in Revolutionary Russia. The Intelligentsia and the Transition from Tsarism to Communism (London, 1990).
206. BAK R 73/223, Bl. 104-8, Zeiss to German Embassy, Moscow, 1 July 1931.
207. BAK R 73/226, Zeiss report on meeting of 22 Mar. 1929.
208. BAK R 73/226, Zeiss report on meeting of 22 Mar. 1929.
209. BAK R 73/228, letter of Vogt to Secretary of ZIK, Enuchize, 10 May 1932.
210. BAK R 73/226, Hamperl report during Dec. 1929; BAK R 73/227, Bl. 55, on Soviet control.
211. BAK R 73/226, Hamperl report during Dec. 1929; BAK R 73/227, Bl. 55, on Soviet control.
212. BAP 0902/420, Bl. 68-9, Vogt to Molotov, 10 May 1932.
213. BAK R 73/228 and 73/227, 29 Aug. 1932, Vogt to Schmidt-Ott.
214. BAK R 73/227, Bl. 77.
215. K.-H. Karbe, ‘Die “Woche der Sowjet-Medizin” zu Berlin (28. November bis 2. Dezember 1932)’, Zeitschrift für die gesamte Hygiene, 27 (1981), 784-8.
216. BAP 0902/421, Bl. 45, for how Litvinov encouraged medical relations with France in 1937.
217. Archiv zur Geschichte der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Berlin 1 Abt. Rep 0001A Gesetz zur Wiederherstellung des Berufsbeamtentums-KWI Hirnforschung 1933-1934, Vogt to KWG, 21 Mar. 1933, Aktennotiz 22 Apr. 1933; Historisches Archiv Friedrich Krupp 4E 1155, O. Vogt note of 30 Aug. 1937 concerning criticisms by the SS and ‘Was hatte Lenin eigentlich im Kopfe?’, Das Schwarze Korps (19 Aug.
218. J. Richter, ‘Oskar Vogt und die Gründung des Berliner Kaiser-Wilhelm-Instituts für Hirnforschung unter den Bedingungen imperialistischer Wissenschaftspolitik’, Psychiatrie, Neurologie und medizinische Psychologie, 28 (1976), 449-57.
219. BAK R 73/228, letters of Aschoff, 16 June and 18 July 1933.
220. BAK R 73/231, 9 Oct. 1933, letter to Donnevert.
221. BAK R 73/232, 22 Jan. 1934, NDW memorandum.
222. BAK R 73/227, Saluschki to NDW, 16 Apr. 1933. NDW 22 Aug. 1933.
223. BAK R 73/227, German embassy, 14 Aug. 1933.
224. BAK: R 73/228, Dirksen to Foreign Office, 14 Aug. 1933; R 73/227, German embassy to Foreign Office, 3 Oct. 1933 and 16 Jan. 1934. BAP: 0902/405, Notiz, 16 Nov. 1933; 0902/421: Bl. 192-5, memorandum by Dirksen, 14 Aug. 1933; Bl. 201-3, Nauck to NDW, 25 June 1933.
225. BAP 0902/421, Bl. 284, 287-8.
226. BAK R 73/229: 24 Feb. 1934, letter from Schmidt-Ott; 14 Oct. and 6 Dec. 1935, NDW memoranda. BAP 0902/421, letter of Schmidt-Ott, 22 Aug. 1933.
227. Vogt papers, ‘Rassenforschung file’. The last bank statement was issued in 1937 but the last payments were made in 1934.
228. BAK R 73/228, letters of 17 June and 13 Nov. 1933. BAP 0902/421, Bl. 163-4, 168-9, 303- 6, on the move of equipment to the German embassy until the arrival of Lührs.
229. BAK R 73/227, German Embassy, Moscow, to Foreign Office, Berlin, 11 Apr. 1933. It is unclear whether the equipment of the Institute for Racial Research became part of the Brain Research Institute or was included in that of the ‘Rimpau Laboratory’ (so-called because Rimpau had devised a convenient form of mobile bacteriological laboratory).
230. Nötzold, ‘Wissenschaftsbeziehungen’, p. 787.
231. BAK R 73/227, NDW to Foreign Office, 21 May 38. BAP 0902/421, Bl. 21, note by Hilger, 26 Jan. 1938.
232. M. Buchsweiler, Volksdeutsche in der Ukraine am Vorabend und Beginn des Zweiten Weltkriegsein Fall doppelter Loyalität (Gerlingen, 1984), pp.
233. H. Neusatz and D. Erka, Ein deutscher Todesweg (1930).
234. Koch, Volga Germans, p. 278, argues that by 1930 a far higher proportion of Volga German landholdings were collectivized (78%) in contrast to a rate of 24% throughout Russia. Fleischhauer and Pinkus, The Soviet Germans, p. 45, point out that German-owned land in Russia in 1914 was of enormous extent (14,750,000 hectares), and that the average holding was 28 hectares.
235. S. Merl, ‘ “Ausrottung” der Bourgeoisie und der Kulaken in Sowjetrussland? Anmerkungen zu einem fragwürdigen Vergleich mit Hitlers Judenvernichtung’, Geschichte und Gesellschaft, 13 (1987), 368-81.
236. H. L. Dyck, Weimar Germany and Soviet Russia 1926-1933. A Study in Diplomatie Instability (London, 1966), pp. 162-84.
237. On Auhagen see Burleigh, Germany Turns Eastwards, p. 34.
238. O. Auhagen, Die Schicksalswende des Russlanddeutschen Bauerntums in den Jahren 1927-1930 (Leipzig, 1942), pp. 55-7.
239. BAP 0908/351: Bl. 87, note by Hilger, 6 Mar. 1931; Bl. 88 on attitude of Foreign Office.
240. K.-H. Görbing, ‘Das Deutschtum in der Sowjetunion’, Verband Deutscher Vereine im Ausland, Wir Deutsche in der Welt (Berlin, 1937), pp. 49-64.
241. R.-D. Müller, Hitlers Ostkrieg und die deutsche Siedlungspolitik. Die Zusammenarbeit von Wehrmacht, Wirtschaft und SS (Frankfurt am Main, 1991).
242. H. Zeiss, ‘Die Bedeutung Russlands für die medizinische geographische Forschung’, Münchener Medizinische Wochenschrift, 72 (1925), 1834-8.
243. H. Zeiss, ‘Geomedizin (geographische Medizin) oder medizinische Geographie?’, Münchener Medizinische Wochenschrift, 77 (1930), 192.
244. H. Zeiss, ‘Die Notwendigkeit einer deutschen Geomedizin’, Zeitschrift für Geopolitik, 9 (1932), 474-84.
245. W. Rimpau, ‘Zur Geschichte der Geoepidemiologie’, Veröffentlichungen der Volksgesundheitsdienst, 48 (1937).
246. Berlin Document Center Party membership card. Zeiss joined on 1 Dec. 1931. For his DNVP allegiance see Das Deutsche Führer Lexikon 1934/1935 (Berlin, n.d.).
247. BAK R 86/744, Zeiss to Reich Minister of the Interior, 4 Apr.
248. P. J. Weindling, ‘“Mustergau Thüringen”: Rassenhygiene zwischen Ideologie und Machtpolitik’, in N. Frei (ed.), Medizin und Gesundheitspolitik der NS-Zeit (Munich, 1991), pp. 81-97.
249. AHUB Medical Faculty, Hygienisches Institut, Nr 127, Bl. 269-80. Vorläufiger Bericht über die Reise in die thüringischen Notstandgebiete vom 12. Januar bis 7. Februar 1933.
250. H.
251. H.
252. Lieferung: IV. 1, Pest in Südostrussland; IV. 1/2, Tularämie-Epidemien in Europa, Vorderasien und Nordafrika 1921-41.
253. For a geographical approach see H. Zeiss and E. Rodenwaldt, Einführung in die Hygiene und Seuchenlehre (Stuttgart, 1936).
254. On Rodenwaldt see M. H. Kater, Doctors under Hitler (Chapel Hill and London, 1989), pp. 2, 264.
255. C. Schilling, ‘Seuchen und Geopolitik’, Zeitschrift für Geopolitik, 13 (1936), 821.
256. H. Zeiss (ed.), Otto Obermeier. Die Entdeckung von fadenförmigen Gebilden im Blut von Rückfallfieberkranken (Leipzig, 1926) p. 9.
257. BAK R 73/223, Bl. 172, Hahn on application for funds by Zeiss, 10 Jan. 1930.
258. BAK R 73/223, Bl. 172, Hahn on application for funds by Zeiss, 10 Jan. 1930.
259. H. and W. Müller-Dietz, ‘Bemerkungen zu der Metschnikow-Biographie von H. Zeiss’, Acta medico-historica (Riga, 1992), in press.
260. H. Zeiss and R. Bieling, Behring. Gestalt und Werk (Berlin, 1941).
261. H. Zeiss and R. Bieling, Behring. Gestalt und Werk (Berlin, 1941).
262. J. Krupenikow, ‘On the Way Towards Cremation’, Pharos, 1 (1934), 27-9.
263. Zeiss and Bieling, Behring, pp. 13, 146-7, 481-4.
264. G. Aly and S. Heim, Vordenker der Vernichtung. Auschwitz und die deutschen Pläne für eine neue europäische Ordnung (Hamburg, 1991), considers the peripheries of the Third Reich while primarily dealing with economic planning.
265. Eugenics has been recognised as being at the core of feminist concerns by A. Grossmann, ‘The New Woman, the New Family and the Rationalization of Sexuality.
266. A. Bergmann, ‘Die Rationalisierten Triebe.
267. C.
268. G. Czarnowski, ‘Familen- als Geschlechterpolitik’, in J. Geyer-Koresch and A. Kuhn (eds.), Frauenkörper-Medizin-Sexualität. Auf dem Wege zu einem neuen Sexualmoral (Düsseldorf, 1986), pp. 263-83.
269. By way of contrast Gisela Bock emphasizes the antitheses between feminism and eugenics in Zwangssterilisation im Nationalsozialismus. Studien zur Rassen- und Frauenpolitik (Opladen, 1986).
270. L.
271. Graham, Between Science and Values, (New York, 1981), pp. 217-56.
272. For the historiography of Graham’s paper see M. B. Adams, ‘Toward a Comparative History of Eugenics’, in Adams (ed.), The Wellborn Science. Eugenics in Germany, France, Brazil and Russia (New York and Oxford, 1990), pp. 217-31, esp. 218.
273. The German-Russian Institute for Racial Research is not mentioned in Graham’s account of the eugenics movement in Germany and Russia in the 1920s. The Racial Research Institute challenges Graham’s views on intellectual autonomy from state interests and ideologies during the 1920s.
274. Alfred Grotjahn and Alfons Fischer, two leading social hygienists whose works were translated into Russian, were influenced by Naumann’s social and nationalist ideas.
275. S. G. Solomon, ‘The Limits of Government Patronage of Sciences: Social Hygiene and the Soviet State 1920-1930’, Social History of Medicine, 3 (1990), 405-35, n. 43 for translations of German medical authors.
276. Graham’s emphasis on the autonomy from state interference and the progressivism of Weimar and Soviet eugenics requires reassessment. For left-wing and feminist interest in Soviet abortion legislation see A. Grossmann, ‘The New Woman’.
277. Here the seminal text is E. Nolte, Der europäische Bürgerkrieg 1917-1945. Nationalsozialismus und Bolschewismus, 4th edn. (Frankfurt am Main, 1989).
278. For Hitler’s perceptions of the Soviet Union see E. Jäckel, Hitler. Sämtliche Auf Zeichnungen 1905-24 (Stuttgart, 1980), pp. 158, 220, 248-51, 329, 590, 631, 691, 697, 716.
279. BAP 15.01, Nr. 9398, Miihlens report no. 7, 23 Oct. 1921, for hostility to Ludendorff.
280. Hitherto debate has centred on Erwin Scheubner-Richter, who had been present in Armenia and was killed in the Munich Beer Hall Putsch of 1923.
281. R. Evans suggests that Alfred Rosenberg was a more profound influence on Hitler concerning Bolshevik atrocities, In Hitler’s Shadow (London, 1990), p. 35.
282. W. Wuttke-Groneberg, ‘Leistung, Vernichtung, Verwertung. Überlegungen zur Struktur der Nationalsozialistischen Medizin’, in Volk und Gesundheit. Heilen und Vernichten im Nationalsozialismus., 3rd edn. (Frankfurt am Main, 1988), pp. 38-9.
283. A. Ebbinghaus, H. Kaupen-Haas, and K. H. Roth (eds), Heilen und Vernichten in Mustergau Hamburg. Bevölkerungs- und Gesundheitspolitik im Dritten Reich (Hamburg, 1984), pp.
284. C. R. Browning, ‘Genozid und Gesundheitswesen. Deutsche Ärzte und polnische Juden 1939- 1941’, Der Wert der Menschen. Medizin in Deutschland 1918-1945 (Berlin, 1989), pp. 316-27.
285. For this interpretation of the post-war crisis and the marginality of völkisch ideologues see Weindling, Health, Race and German Politics, pp. 305-98.
286. H. Zeiss, ‘Der Kampf der feindlichen Wissenschaft gegen Deutschland’, Süddeutsche Monatshefte (1919), 157-62.