Assessing anhedonia in depression: Potentials and pitfalls

Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews

Volumn 65, Issue , 2016, Pages 21-35

  Rizvi, Sakina J ^a,b   Pizzagalli, Diego A ^c   Sproule, Beth A ^b,d   Kennedy, Sidney H ^a,b,e  

^a ST MICHAEL'S HOSPITAL   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

^c HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

^d CENTRE FOR ADDICTION AND MENTAL HEALTH   (Canada)

^e UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

Author keywords

Anhedonia; Anticipation; Delay discounting; Effort; Gambling; Major depression; Monetary incentive delay; Prediction error; Response bias; Reward; Scale

Indexed keywords

ANHEDONIA; ANTICIPATION; ANTICIPATORY AND CONSUMMATORY INTERPERSONAL PLEASURE SCALE; APATHY EVALUATION SCALE; COGNITIVE BIAS; DELAY DISCOUNTING; DEPRESSION; DIMENSIONAL ANHEDONIA RATING SCALE; DISEASE MODEL; GAMBLING; HUMAN; MONETARY INCENTIVE DELAY; MOTIVATION AND ENERGY INVENTORY; MOTIVATIONAND PLEASURE SCALE SELF REPORT; NEUROBIOLOGY; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TEST; NONHUMAN; PLACE PREFERENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROBABILISTIC REVERSAL LEARNING; RATING SCALE; REVIEW; REWARD; REWARD RESPONSE BIAS; SELF STIMULATION; SPECIFIC LOSS OF INTEREST SCALE; SUCROSE PREFERENCE TEST; TEMPORAL EXPERIENCE OF PLEASURE SCALE; MOTIVATION;

ANHEDONIA; DEPRESSION; HUMANS; MOTIVATION; REWARD;

EID: 84961911777     PISSN: 01497634     EISSN: 18737528     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.03.004     Document Type: Review

References (142)

1. Adida M., Jollant F., Clark L., Besnier N., Guillaume S., Kaladjian A., Mazzola-Pomietto P., Jeanningros R., Goodwin G.M., Azorin J.M., Courtet P. Trait-related decision-making impairment in the three phases of bipolar disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 2011, 70:357-365.
2. Aguilar M.A., Rodríguez-Arias M., Miñarro J. Neurobiological mechanisms of the reinstatement of drug-conditioned place preference. Brain Res. Rev. 2009, 59:253-277.
3. Alloy L.B., Abramson L.Y., Walshaw P.D., Cogswell A., Grandin L.D., Hughes M.E., Iacoviello B.M., Whitehouse W.G., Urosevic S., Nusslock R., Hogan M.E. Behavioral approach system and behavioral inhibition system sensitivities and bipolar spectrum disorders: prospective prediction of bipolar mood episodes. Bipolar Disord. 2008, 10:310-322.
4. Barbano M.F., Cador M. Opioids for hedonic experience and dopamine to get ready for it. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2007, 191:497-506.
5. Bari A., Theobald D.E., Caprioli D., Mar A.C., Aidoo-Micah A., Dalley J.W., Robbins T.W. Serotonin modulates sensitivity to reward and negative feedback in a probabilistic reversal learning task in rats. Neuropsychopharmacology 2010, 35:1290-1301.
6. Bechara A., Damasio A.R., Damasio H., Anderson S.W. Insensitivity to future consequences following damage to human prefrontal cortex. Cognition 1994, 50:7-15.
7. Beck A.T., Ward C.H., Mendelson M., Mock J., Erbaugh J. An inventory for measuring depression. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 1961, 4:561-571.
8. Beck S.M., Locke H.S., Savine A.C., Jimura K., Braver T.S. Primary and secondary rewards differentially modulate neural activity dynamics during working memory. PLoS One 2010, 5:e9251.
9. Berlin I., Givry-Steiner L., Lecrubier Y., Puech A.J. Measures of anhedonia and hedonic responses to sucrose in depressive and schizophrenic patients in comparison with healthy subjects. Eur. Psychiatry 1998, 13:303-309.
10. Bevins R.A., Besheer J. Novelty reward as a measure of anhedonia. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2005, 29:707-714.
11. Bourke C., Douglas K., Porter R. Processing of facial emotion expression in major depression: a review. Aust. N. Z. J. Psychiatry 2010, 44:681-696.
12. Budhani S., Blair R.J. Response reversal and children with psychopathic tendencies: success is a function of salience of contingency change. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 2005, 46:972-981.
13. Campbell-Sills L., Liverant G.I., Brown T.A. Psychometric evaluation of the behavioral inhibition/behavioral activation scales in a large sample of outpatients with anxiety and mood disorders. Psychol. Assess. 2004, 16:244-254.
14. Capuron L., Pagnoni G., Drake D.F., Woolwine B.J., Spivey J.R., Crowe R.J., Votaw J.R., Goodman M.M., Miller A.H. Dopaminergic mechanisms of reduced basal ganglia responses to hedonic reward during interferon alfa administration. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 2012, 69:1044-1053.
15. Carr G.D., White N.M. Conditioned place preference from intra-accumbens but not intra-caudate amphetamine injections. Life Sci. 1983, 33:2551-2557.
16. Carver C.S., White T.L. Behavioral inhibition, behavioral activation, and affective responses to impending reward and punishment: the BIS/BAS scales. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 1994, 67:319-333.
17. Chapman L.J., Chapman J.P., Raulin M.L. Scales for physical and social anhedonia. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 1976, 85:374-382.
18. Chase H.W., Nusslock R., Almeida J.R., Forbes E.E., LaBarbara E.J., Phillips M.L. Dissociable patterns of abnormal frontal cortical activation during anticipation of an uncertain reward or loss in bipolar versus major depression. Bipolar Disord. 2013, 15:839-854.
19. Christensen T., Bisgaard C.F., Wiborg O. Biomarkers of anhedonic-like behavior, antidepressant drug refraction, and stress resilience in a rat model of depression. Neuroscience 2011, 196:66-79.
20. Clark D.C., Fawcett J., Salazar-Grueso E., Fawcett E. Seven-month clinical outcome of anhedonic and normally hedonic depressed inpatients. Am. J. Psychiatry 1984, 141:1216-1220.
21. Cléry-Melin M.L., Schmidt L., Lafargue G., Baup N., Fossati P., Pessiglione M. Why don't you try harder? An investigation of effort production in major depression. PLoS One 2011, 6:e23178.
22. Cohen M.X., Axmacher N., Lenartz D., Elger C.E., Sturm V., Schlaepfer T.E. Neuroelectric signatures of reward learning and decision-making in the human nucleus accumbens. Neuropsychopharmacology 2009, 34:1649-1658.
23. Collier A.D., Echevarria D.J. The utility of the zebrafish model in conditioned place preference to assess the rewarding effects of drugs. Behav. Pharmacol. 2013, 24:375-383.
24. Crean J.P., de Wit H., Richards J.B. Reward discounting as a measure of impulsive behavior in a psychiatric outpatient population. Exp. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 2000, 8:155-162.
25. Delgado M.R., Nystrom L.E., Fissell C., Noll D.C., Fiez J.A. Tracking the hemodynamic responses to reward and punishment in the striatum. J. Neurophysiol. 2000, 84:3072-3077.
26. Der-Avakian A., Markou A. The neurobiology of anhedonia and other reward-related deficits. Trends Neurosci. 2012, 35:68-77.
27. Der-Avakian A., D'Souza M.S., Pizzagalli D.A., Markou A. Assessment of reward responsiveness in the response bias probabilistic reward task in rats: implications for cross-species translational research. Transl. Psychiatry 2013, 3:e297.
28. Dichter G.S., Smoski M.J., Kampov-Polevoy A.B., Gallop R., Garbutt J.C. Unipolar depression does not moderate responses to the Sweet Taste Test. Depress. Anxiety 2010, 27:859-863.
29. Dillon D.G., Holmes A.J., Jahn A.L., Bogdan R., Wald L.L., Pizzagalli D.A. Dissociation of neural regions associated with anticipatory versus consummatory phases of incentive processing. Psychophysiology 2008, 45:36-49.
30. Dombrovski A.Y., Siegle G.J., Szanto K., Clark L., Reynolds C.F., Aizenstein H. The temptation of suicide: striatal gray matter, discounting of delayed rewards, and suicide attempts in late-life depression. Psychol. Med. 2012, 42:1203-1215.
31. Duman C.H. Models of depression. Vitam. Horm. 2010, 82:1-21.
32. Dunlop B.W., Nemeroff C.B. The role of dopamine in the pathophysiology of depression. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 2007, 64:327-337.
33. Elliott R., Sahakian B.J., Herrod J.J., Robbins T.W., Paykel E.S. Abnormal response to negative feedback in unipolar depression: evidence for a diagnosis specific impairment. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 1997, 63:74-82.
34. Fawcett J., Clark D.C., Scheftner W.A., Gibbons R.D. Assessing anhedonia in psychiatric patients. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 1983, 40:79-84.
35. Fehnel S.E., Bann C.M., Hogue S.L., Kwong W.J., Mahajan S.S. The development and psychometric evaluation of the Motivation and Energy Inventory (MEI). Qual. Life Res. 2004, 13:1321-1336.
36. Feinberg T.E., Rifkin A., Schaffer C., Walker E. Facial discrimination and recognition in in schizophrenia and affective disorders. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 1986, 43:276-279.
37. Feja M., Koch M. Ventral medial prefrontal cortex inactivation impairs impulse control but does not affect delay-discounting in rats. Behav. Brain Res. 2014, 264:230-239.
38. Forbes E.E., Hariri A.R., Martin S.L., Silk J.S., Moyles D.L., Fisher P.M., Brown S.M., Ryan N.D., Birmaher B., Axelson D.A., Dahl R.E. Altered striatal activation predicting real-world positive affect in adolescent major depressive disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry 2009, 166:64-73.
39. Gard D.E., Kring A.M., Gard M.G., Horan W.P., Green M.F. Anhedonia in schizophrenia: distinctions between anticipatory and consummatory pleasure. Schizophr. Res. 2007, 93:253-260.
40. Gard D.E., Gard M.G., Kring A.M., John O.P. Anticipatory and consummatory components of the experience of pleasure: a scale development study. J. Res. Pers. 2006, 40:1086-1102.
41. Gooding D.C., Pflum M.J. The assessment of interpersonal pleasure: introduction of the Anticipatory and Consummatory Interpersonal Pleasure Scale (ACIPS) and preliminary findings. Psychiatry Res. 2014, 215:237-243.
42. Gooding D.C., Pflum M.J. Further validation of the ACIPS as a measure of social hedonic response. Psychiatry Res. 2014, 215:771-777.
43. Gradin V.B., Kumar P., Waiter G., Ahearn T., Stickle C., Milders M., Reid I., Hall J., Steele J.D. Expected value and prediction error abnormalities in depression and schizophrenia. Brain 2011, 134:1751-1764.
44. Green L., Myerson J., McFadden E. Rate of temporal discounting decreases with amount of reward. Mem. Cognit. 1997, 25:715-723.
45. Gualtieri C.T., Johnson L.G., Benedict K.B. Neurocognition in depression: patients on and off medication versus healthy comparison subjects. J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 2006, 18:217-225.
46. Hamani C., Machado D.C., Hipólide D.C., Dubiela F.P., Suchecki D., Macedo C.E., Tescarollo F., Martins U., Covolan L., Nobrega J.N. Deep brain stimulation reverses anhedonic-like behavior in a chronic model of depression: role of serotonin and brain derived neurotrophic factor. Biol. Psychiatry 2012, 71:30-35.
47. Hamilton A rating scale for depression. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 1960, 23:56-62.
48. Harmer C.J., O'Sullivan U., Favaron E., Massey-Chase R., Ayres R., Reinecke A., Goodwin G.M., Cowen P.J. Effect of acute antidepressant administration on negative affective bias in depressed patients. Am. J. Psychiatry 2009, 166:1178-1184.
49. Harris R.B., Zhou J., Youngblood B.D., Smagin G.N., Ryan D.H. Failure to change exploration or saccharin preference in rats exposed to chronic mild stress. Physiol. Behav. 1997, 63:91-100.
50. Hasler G., Mondillo K., Drevets W.C., Blair J.R. Impairments of probabilistic response reversal and passive avoidance following catecholamine depletion. Neuropsychopharmacology 2009, 34:2691-2698.
51. Hatcher J.P., Bell D.J., Reed T.J., Hagan J.J. Chronic mild stress-induced reductions in saccharin intake depend upon feeding status. J. Psychopharmacol. 1997, 11:331-338.
52. Henriques J.B., Davidson R.J. Decreased responsiveness to reward in depression. Cog. Emot. 2000, 14:711-724.
53. Hewett K., Chrzanowski W., Schmitz M., Savela A., Milanova V., Gee M., Krishen A., Millen L., Leary M.O., Modell J. Eight-week, placebo-controlled, double-blind comparison of the antidepressant efficacy and tolerability of bupropion XR and venlafaxine XR. J. Psychopharmacol. 2009, 23:531-538.
54. Hinson J.M., Jameson T.L., Whitney P. Impulsive decision making and working memory. J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cogn. 2003, 29:298-306.
55. Horton D.B., Potter D.M., Mead A.N. A translational pharmacology approach to understanding the predictive value of abuse potential assessments. Behav. Pharmacol. 2013, 24:410-436.
56. Hundt N.E., Nelson-Gray R.O., Kimbrel N.A., Mitchell J.T., Kwapil T.R. The interaction of reinforcement sensitivity and life events in the prediction of anhedonic depression and mixed anxiety- depression symptoms. Pers. Individ. Dif. 2007, 43:1001-1012.
57. Huston J.P., Silva M.A., Topic B., Müller C.P. What's conditioned in conditioned place preference. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 2013, 34:162-166.
58. Ineichen C., Sigrist H., Spinelli S., Lesch K.P., Sautter E., Seifritz E., Pryce C.R. Establishing a probabilistic reversal learning test in mice: evidence for the processes mediating reward-stay and punishment- shift behaviour and for their modulation by serotonin. Neuropharmacology 2012, 63:1012-1021.
59. Kampov-Polevoy A.B., Alterman A., Khalitov E., Garbutt J.C. Sweet preference predicts mood altering effect of and impaired control over eating sweet foods. Eat. Behav. 2006, 7:181-187.
60. Kasch K.L., Rottenberg J., Arnow B.A., Gotlib I.H. Behavioral activation and inhibition systems and the severity and course of depression. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 2002, 111:589-597.
61. Kennedy S.H., Downar J., Evans K.R., Feilotter H., Lam R.W., MacQueen G.M., Milev R., Parikh S.V., Rotzinger S., Soares C. The Canadian Biomarker Integration Network in Depression (CAN-BIND): advances in response prediction. Curr. Pharm. Des. 2012, 18:5976-5989.
62. Kimura K., Izawa S., Sugaya N., Ogawa N., Yamada K.C., Shirotsuki K., Mikami I., Hirata K., Nagano Y., Hasegawa T. The biological effects of acute psychosocial stress on delay discounting. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2013, 38:2300-2308.
63. Kirby K.N., Petry N.M., Bickel W.K. Heroin addicts have higher discount rates for delayed rewards than non-drug-using controls. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 1999, 128:78-87.
64. Knutson B., Westdorp A., Kaiser E., Hommer D. FMRI visualization of brain activity during a monetary incentive delay task. Neuroimage 2000, 12:20-27.
65. Knutson B., Fong G.W., Adams C.M., Varner J.L., Hommer D. Dissociation of reward anticipation and outcome with event-related fMRI. Neuroreport 2001, 12:3683-3687.
66. Knutson B., Bhanji J.P., Cooney R.E., Atlas L.Y., Gotlib I.H. Neural responses to monetary incentives in major depression. Biol. Psychiatry 2008, 63:686-692.
67. Kring A.M., Barch D.M. The motivation and pleasure dimension of negative symptoms: neural substrates and behavioral outputs. Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol. 2014, 24:725-736.
68. Kumar P., Berghorst L.H., Nickerson L.D., Dutra S.J., Goer F.K., Greve D.N., Pizzagalli D.A. Differential effects of acute stress on anticipatory and consummatory phases of reward processing. Neuroscience 2014, 266:1-12.
69. Kumar P., Waiter G., Ahearn T., Milders M., Reid I., Steele J.D. Abnormal temporal difference reward-learning signals in major depression. Brain 2008, 131:2084-2093.
70. Leppänen J.M. Emotional information processing in mood disorders: a review of behavioral and neuroimaging findings. Curr. Opin. Psychiatry 2006, 19:34-39.
71. Lempert K.M., Pizzagalli D.A. Delay discounting and future-directed thinking in anhedonic individuals. J. Behav. Ther. Exp. Psychiatry 2010, 41:258-264.
72. Leventhal A.M., Chasson G.S., Tapia E., Miller E.K., Pettit J.W. Measuring hedonic capacity in depression: a psychometric analysis of three anhedonia scales. J. Clin. Psychol. 2006, 62:1545-1558.
73. Leventopoulos M., Russig H., Feldon J., Pryce C.R., Opacka-Juffry J. Early deprivation leads to long-term reductions in motivation for reward and 5-HT1A binding and both effects are reversed by fluoxetine. Neuropharmacology 2009, 56:692-701.
74. Li N., Ma N., Liu Y., He X.S., Sun D.L., Fu X.M., Zhang X., Han S., Zhang D.R. Resting-state functional connectivity predicts impulsivity in economic decision-making. J. Neurosci. 2013, 33:4886-4895.
75. Liu W.H., Chan R.C., Wang L.Z., Huang J., Cheung E.F., Gong Q.Y., Gollan J.K. Deficits in sustaining reward responses in subsyndromal and syndromal major depression. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 2011, 35:1045-1052.
76. Llerena K., Park S.G., McCarthy J.M., Couture S.M., Bennett M.E., Blanchard J.J. The Motivation and Pleasure Scale-Self-Report (MAP-SR): reliability and validity of a self-report measure of negative symptoms. Compr. Psychiatry 2013, 54:568-574.
77. Marin R.S., Biedrzycki R.C., Firinciogullari S. Reliability and validity of the Apathy Evaluation Scale. Psychiatry Res. 1991, 38:143-162.
78. Martinotti G., Sepede G., Gambi F., Di Iorio G., De Berardis D., Di Nicola M., Onofrj M., Janiri L., Di Giannantonio M. Agomelatine versus venlafaxine XR in the treatment of anhedonia in major depressive disorder: a pilot study. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 2012, 32:487-491.
79. McCabe C., Cowen P.J., Harmer C.J. Neural representation of reward in recovered depressed patients. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2009, 205:667-677.
80. McFarland B.R., Shankman S.A., Tenke C.E., Bruder G.E., Klein D.N. Behavioral activation system deficits predict the six-month course of depression. J. Affect. Disord. 2006, 91:229-234.
81. McLeish K.N., Oxoby R.J. Measuring impatience: elicited discount rates and the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale. Pers. Individ. Dif. 2007, 43:553-565.
82. McClintock S.M., Husain M.M., Greer T.L., Cullum C.M. Association between depression severity and neurocognitive function in major depressive disorder: a review and synthesis. Neuropsychology 2010, 24:9-34.
83. McClure S.M., Ericson K.M., Laibson D.I., Loewenstein G., Cohen J.D. Time discounting for primary rewards. J. Neurosci. 2007, 27:5796-5804.
84. McMakin D.L., Olino T.M., Porta G., Dietz L.J., Emslie G., Clarke G., Wagner K.D., Asarnow J.R., Ryan N.D., Birmaher B., Shamseddeen W., Mayes T., Kennard B., Spirito A., Keller M., Lynch F.L., Dickerson J.F., Brent D.A. Anhedonia predicts poorer recovery among youth with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor treatment-resistant depression. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 2012, 51:404-411. 3.
85. Moreau J.L., Jenck F., Martin J.R., Mortas P., Haefely W.E. Antidepressant treatment prevents chronic unpredictable mild stress-induced anhedonia as assessed by ventral tegmentum self- stimulation behavior in rats. Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol. 1992, 2:43-49.
86. Morris G., Nevet A., Arkadir D., Vaadia E., Bergman H. Midbrain dopamine neurons encode decisions for future action. Nat. Neurosci. 2006, 9:1057-1063.
87. Murphy F.C., Michael A., Robbins T.W., Sahakian B.J. Neuropsychological impairment in patients with major depressive disorder: the effects of feedback on task performance. Psychol. Med. 2003, 33:455-467.
88. Muscat R., Papp M., Willner P. Reversal of stress-induced anhedonia by the atypical antidepressants, fluoxetine and maprotiline. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1992, 109:433-438.
89. Must A., Horvath S., Nemeth V.L., Janka Z. The Iowa Gambling Task in depression - what have we learned about sub-optimal decision-making strategies?. Front. Psychol. 2013, 4:732.
90. Nakonezny P.A., Carmody T.J., Morris D.W., Kurian B.T., Trivedi M.H. Psychometric evaluation of the Snaith-Hamilton pleasure scale in adult outpatients with major depressive disorder. Int. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 2010, 25:328-333.
91. Nestler E.J., Hyman S.E. Animal models of neuropsychiatric disorders. Nat. Neurosci. 2010, 13:1161-1169.
92. Nielsen C.K., Arnt J., Sánchez C. Intracranial self-stimulation and sucrose intake differ as hedonic measures following chronic mild stress: interstrain and interindividual differences. Behav. Brain. Res. 2000, 107:21-33.
93. Ossewaarde L., Verkes R.J., Hermans E.J., Kooijman S.C., Urner M., Tendolkar I., van Wingen G.A., Fernández G. Two-week administration of the combined serotonin-noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor duloxetine augments functioning of mesolimbic incentive processing circuits. Biol. Psychiatry 2011, 70:568-574.
94. Papp M., Gruca P., Boyer P.A., Mocaër E. Effect of agomelatine in the chronic mild stress model of depression in the rat. Neuropsychopharmacology 2003, 28:694-703.
95. Papp M., Moryl E., Willner P. Pharmacological validation of the chronic mild stress model of depression. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 1996, 296:129-136.
96. Pechtel P., Dutra S.J., Goetz E.L., Pizzagalli D.A. Blunted reward responsiveness in remitted depression. J. Psychiatr. Res. 2013, 47:1864-1869.
97. Pergadia M.L., Der-Avakian A., D'Souza M.S., Madden P.A.F., Heath A.C., Shiffman S., Markou A., Pizzagalli D.A. Withdrawal of nicotine blunts reward responsiveness in humans and rats. JAMA Psychiatry 2014, 71:1238-1245.
98. Pizzagalli D.A., Jahn A.L., O'Shea J.P. Toward an objective characterization of an anhedonic phenotype: a signal-detection approach. Biol. Psychiatry 2005, 57:319-327.
99. Pizzagalli D.A., Iosifescu D., Hallett L.A., Ratner K.G., Fava M. Reduced hedonic capacity in major depressive disorder: evidence from a probabilistic reward task. J. Psychiatr. Res. 2008, 43:76-87.
100. Pizzagalli D.A., Holmes A.J., Dillon D.G., Goetz E.L., Birk J.L., Bogdan R., Dougherty D.D., Iosifescu D.V., Rauch S.L., Fava M. Reduced caudate and nucleus accumbens response to rewards in unmedicated individuals with major depressive disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry 2009, 166:702-710.
101. Pizzagalli D.A. Depression, stress and anhedonia: toward a synthesis and integrated model. Ann. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 2014, 10:393-423.
102. Porter R.J., Gallagher P., Thompson J.M., Young A.H. Neurocognitive impairment in drug-free patients with major depressive disorder. Br. J. Psychiatry 2003, 182:214-220.
103. Pulcu E., Trotter P.D., Thomas E.J., McFarquhar M., Juhasz G., Sahakian B.J., Deakin J.F., Zahn R., Anderson I.M., Elliott R. Temporal discounting in major depressive disorder. Psychol. Med. 2014, 44:1825-1834.
104. Ribot T. La Psychologie des Sentiment 1896, Felix Alcan, Paris.
105. Richards J.B., Zhang L., Mitchell S.H., de Wit H. Delay or probability discounting in a model of impulsive behavior: effect of alcohol. J. Exp. Anal. Behav. 1999, 71:121-143.
106. Rizvi S.J., Quilty L.C., Sproule B.A., Cyriac A., Michael Bagby R., Kennedy S.H. Development and validation of the Dimensional Anhedonia Rating Scale (DARS) in a community sample and individuals with major depression. Psychiatry Res. 2015, 229:109-119.
107. Rothschild A.J., Raskin J., Wang C.N., Marangell L.B., Fava M. The relationship between change in apathy and changes in cognition and functional outcomes in currently non-depressed SSRI- treated patients with major depressive disorder. Compr. Psychiatry 2014, 55:1-10.
108. Salamone J.D., Cousins M.S., McCullough L.D., Carriero D.L., Berkowitz R.J. Nucleus accumbens dopamine release increases during instrumental lever pressing for food but not free food consumption. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 1994, 49:25-31.
109. Salamone J.D., Correa M., Farrar A., Mingote S.M. Effort-related functions of nucleus accumbens dopamine and associated forebrain circuits. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2007, 191:461-482.
110. Schrader G.D. Does anhedonia correlate with depression severity in chronic depression. Compr. Psychiatry 1997, 38:260-263.
111. Schultz W. Predictive reward signal of dopamine neurons. J. Neurophysiol. 1998, 80:1-27.
112. Schultz W. Updating dopamine reward signals. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 2013, 23:229-238.
113. Schweighofer N., Bertin M., Shishida K., Okamoto Y., Tanaka S.C., Yamawaki S., Doya K. Low-serotonin levels increase delayed reward discounting in humans. J. Neurosci. 2008, 28:4528-4532.
114. Sescousse G., Redouté J., Dreher J.C. The architecture of reward value coding in the human orbitofrontal cortex. J. Neurosci. 2010, 30:13095-130104.
115. Sescousse G., Caldú X., Segura B., Dreher J.C. Processing of primary and secondary rewards: a quantitative meta-analysis and review of human functional neuroimaging studies. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2013, 37:681-696.
116. Sherdell L., Waugh C.E., Gotlib I.H. Anticipatory pleasure predicts motivation for reward in major depression. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 2012, 121:51-60.
117. Shinohara F., Kihara Y., Ide S., Minami M., Kaneda K. Critical role of cholinergic transmission from the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus to the ventral tegmental area in cocaine- induced place preference. Neuropharmacology 2014, 79:573-579.
118. Snaith R.P., Hamilton M., Morley S., Humayan A., Hargreaves D., Trigwell P. A scale for the assessment of hedonic tone the Snaith-Hamilton Pleasure Scale. Br. J. Psychiatry 1995, 167:99-103.
119. Steele J.D., Kumar P., Ebmeier K.P. Blunted response to feedback information in depressive illness. Brain 2007, 130:2367-2374.
120. Stoy M., Schlagenhauf F., Sterzer P., Bermpohl F., Hägele C., Suchotzki K., Schmack K., Wrase J., Ricken R., Knutson B., Adli M., Bauer M., Heinz A., Ströhle A. Hyporeactivity of ventral striatum towards incentive stimuli in unmedicated depressed patients normalizes after treatment with escitalopram. J . Psychopharmacol. 2012, 26:677-688.
121. Swainson R., Rogers R.D., Sahakian B.J., Summers B.A., Polkey C.E., Robbins T.W. Probabilistic learning and reversal deficits in patients with Parkinson's disease or frontal or temporal lobe lesions: possible adverse effects of dopaminergic medication. Neuropsychologia 2000, 38:596-612.
122. Takahashi T., Oono H., Inoue T., Boku S., Kako Y., Kitaichi Y., Kusumi I., Masui T., Nakagawa S., Suzuki K., Tanaka T., Koyama T., Radford M.H. Depressive patients are more impulsive and inconsistent in intertemporal choice behavior for monetary gain and loss than healthy subjects-an analysis based on Tsallis' statistics. Neuro Endocrinol. Lett. 2008, 29:351-358.
123. Taylor Tavares J.V., Clark L., Furey M.L., Williams G.B., Sahakian B.J., Drevets W.C. Neural basis of abnormal response to negative feedback in unmedicated mood disorders. Neuroimage 2008, 42:1118-1126.
124. Treadway M.T., Zald D.H. Reconsidering anhedonia in depression: lessons from translational neuroscience. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2011, 35:537-555.
125. Treadway M.T., Buckholtz J.W., Schwartzman A.N., Lambert W.E., Zald D.H. Worth the 'EEfRT'? The effort expenditure for rewards task as an objective measure of motivation and anhedonia. PLoS One 2009, 4:e6598.
126. Treadway M.T., Bossaller N.A., Shelton R.C., Zald D.H. Effort-based decision-making in major depressive disorder: a translational model of motivational anhedonia. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 2012, 121:553-558.
127. Tripp G., Alsop B. Sensitivity to reward frequency in boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. J. Clin. Child Psychol. 1999, 28:366-375.
128. Tsankova N.M., Berton O., Renthal W., Kumar A., Neve R.L., Nestler E.J. Sustained hippocampal chromatin regulation in a mouse model of depression and antidepressant action. Nat. Neurosci. 2006, 9:519-525.
129. Tso I.F., Grove T.B., Taylor S.F. Differential hedonic experience and behavioral activation in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Psychiatry Res. 2014, 219:470-476.
130. Uher R., Farmer A., Maier W., Rietschel M., Hauser J., Marusic A., Mors O., Elkin A., Williamson R.J., Schmael C., Henigsberg N., Perez J., Mendlewicz J., Janzing J.G., Zobel A., Skibinska M., Kozel D., Stamp A.S., Bajs M., Placentino A., Barreto M., McGuffin P., Aitchison K.J. Measuring depression: comparison and integration of three scales in the GENDEP study. Psychol. Med. 2008, 38:289-300.
131. Uher R., Perlis R.H., Henigsberg N., Zobel A., Rietschel M., Mors O., Hauser J., Dernovsek M.Z., Souery D., Bajs M., Maier W., Aitchison K.J., Farmer A., McGuffin P. Depression symptom dimensions as predictors of antidepressant treatment outcome: replicable evidence for interest-activity symptoms. Psychol. Med. 2012, 42:967-980.
132. van Zessen R., Phillips J.L., Budygin E.A., Stuber G.D. Activation of VTA GABA neurons disrupts reward consumption. Neuron 2012, 73:1184-1194.
133. Vrieze E., Pizzagalli D.A., Demyttenaere K., Hompes T., Sienaert P., de Boer P., Schmidt M., Claes S. Reduced reward learning predicts outcome in major depressive disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 2013, 73:639-645.
134. Walsh N.D., Williams S.C., Brammer M.J., Bullmore E.T., Kim J., Suckling J., Mitterschiffthaler M.T., Cleare A.J., Pich E.M., Mehta M.A., Fu C.H. A longitudinal functional magnetic resonance imaging study of verbal working memory in depression after antidepressant therapy. Biol. Psychiatry 2007, 62:1236-1243.
135. Warden D., Rush A.J., Trivedi M.H., Fava M., Wisniewski S.R. The STAR*D Project results: a comprehensive review of findings. Curr. Psychiatry Rep. 2007, 9(December (6)):449-459.
136. Waugh C.E., Gotlib I.H. Motivation for reward as a function of required effort: Dissociating the 'liking' from the 'wanting' system in humans. Motiv. Emot. 2008, 32:323-330.
137. Willner P. The validity of animal models of depression. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1984, 83:1-16.
138. Willner P. Validity, reliability and utility of the chronic mild stress model of depression: a 10-year review and evaluation. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1997, 134:319-329.
139. Willner P., Towell A., Sampson D., Sophokleous S., Muscat R. Reduction of sucrose preference by chronic unpredictable mild stress, and its restoration by a tricyclic antidepressant. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1987, 93:358-364.
140. Willner P., Muscat R., Papp M. Chronic mild stress-induced anhedonia: a realistic animal model of depression. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 1992, 16:525-534.
141. Willner P., Hale A.S., Argyropoulos S. Dopaminergic mechanism of antidepressant action in depressed patients. J. Affect. Disord. 2005, 86:37-45.
142. Winer E.S., Veilleux J.C., Ginger E.J. Development and validation of the Specific Loss of Interest and Pleasure Scale (SLIPS). J. Affect. Disord. 2014, 152-154:193-201.