A sustainability review of domestic rubber from the guayule plant

Industrial Crops and Products

Volumn 70, Issue , 2015, Pages 383-394

  Rasutis, Daina ^a   Soratana, Kullapa ^a,b   McMahan, Colleen ^c   Landis, Amy E ^a  

^a Arizona State University   (United States)

^b NARESUAN UNIVERSITY   (Thailand)

^c AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SERVICE   (United States)

Author keywords

Guayule; Hevea; Life cycle assessment; Natural rubber; Sustainability

Indexed keywords

AGRICULTURE; CULTIVATION; ECONOMICS; ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT; LATEXES; LIFE CYCLE; PETROLEUM INDUSTRY; RUBBER; RUBBER INDUSTRY; SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT; SYNTHETIC RUBBER;

ALTERNATIVE SOURCE; ENVIRONMENTAL FOOTPRINTS; GUAYULE; GUAYULE CULTIVATION; HEVEA; LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT (LCA); PARTHENIUM ARGENTATUM; PROCESSING ACTIVITY;

RUBBER PRODUCTS;

ADAPTATION; ARID ENVIRONMENT; BIOENERGY; COMMERCIALIZATION; DICOTYLEDON; ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT; LIFE CYCLE; PETROLEUM; POLYMER; SUSTAINABILITY; TROPICAL REGION;

FEDERAL DISTRICT [MEXICO]; MEXICO CITY; MEXICO [NORTH AMERICA]; TEXAS; UNITED STATES;

HEVEA; HEVEA BRASILIENSIS; PARTHENIUM ARGENTATUM;

EID: 84961292118     PISSN: 09266690     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.indcrop.2015.03.042     Document Type: Review

References (145)

1. Ahmad J., Yusup S., Bokhari A., Kamil R.N.M. Study of fuel properties of rubber seed oil based biodiesel. Energy Convers. Manage. 2014, 78:266-275.
2. Aratrakorn S., Thunhikorn S., Donald P. Changes in bird communities following conversion of lowland forest to oil palm and rubber plantations in southern Thailand. Bird Conserv. Int. 2006, 16(1):71-82.
3. Balsiger J., Bahdon J., Whiteman A. The Utilization, Processing and Demand for Rubberwood as a Source of Wood Supply 2000, FAO, Forestry Policy and Planning Division.
4. Bass S., Dalal-Clayton B., Pretty J. Participation in Strategies for Sustainable Development 1995, International Institute for Environment and Development.
5. Bekaardt C.R., Coffelt T.A., Fenwick J.R., Wiesner L.E. Environmental, irrigation and fertilization impacts on the seed quality of guayule (Parthenium argentatum Gray). Ind. Crops Prod. 2010, 31(3):427-436.
6. Benedict H.M. The effect of soil temperature on guayule plants. Plant Physiol. 1950, 25(3):377.
7. Bloomberg Rubber futures rise as higher oil increases appeal 2013, The Economic Times.
8. Boateng A.A., Mullen C.A., Goldberg K.B., Hicks C.M., Whalen M.C., Cornish K. Energy-dense liquid fuel intermediates by pyrolysis of guayule (Parthenium argentatum) shrub and bagasse. Fuel 2009, 88(11):2207-2215.
9. Boateng A.A., Mullen C.M., Whalen M.C., Cornish K. Guayule (Parthenium argentatum) pyrolysis and analysis by PY-GC/MS. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 2010, 87(1):14-23.
10. Bonner J. Effects of temperature on rubber accumulation by the guayule plant. Bot. Gaz. 1943, 105(December (2)):233-243.
11. Bousquet J., Flahault A., Vandenplas O., Ameille J., Duron J.-J., Pecquet C., Chevrie K., Annesi-Maesano I. Natural rubber latex allergy among health care workers: a systematic review of the evidence. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2006, 118(2):447-454.
12. Bridgestone Americas, 2013. Bridgestone Americas Announces Completion Of Agro Operations Guayule Research Farm In Eloy, Ariz. Retrieved February 28, 2015. from:. http://www.bridgestoneamericas.com/corporate/news/131009a.html.
13. Bronson K. Personal Communication, 2014 2014, Personal Communication at U.S Arid-Land Agricultural Research Center.
14. Buchanan R.A., Cull I., Otey F.H., Russell C.R. Hydrocarbon-and rubber-producing crops. Econ. Bot. 1978, 32(2):146-153.
15. Bucks D.A., Nakayama F.S., French O.F., Legard W.W.W., Alexander L. Irrigated guayule - evapotranspiration and plant water stress. Agric. Water Manage. 1985, 10(1):61-79.
16. Bucks D.A., Roth R.L., Nakayama F.S., Gardner B.R. Irrigation water, nitrogen, and bioregulation for guayule production. ASAE 1985, 28:1196-1205.
17. Bultman J.D., Gilbertson R.L., Adaskaveg J., Amburgey T.L., Parikh S.V., Bailey C.A. The efficacy of guayule resin as a pesticide. Bioresour. Technol. 1991, 35(2):197-201.
18. Buranov A.U., Elmuradov B.J. Extraction and characterization of latex and natural rubber from rubber-bearing plants. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2009, 58(2):734-743.
19. Cantú D.J., Angulo-Sánchez J.L., Rodríguez-García R., Kuruvadi S. Seasonal growth, rubber and resin yield characteristics of guayule under natural environmental conditions. Ind. Crops Prod. 1997, 6(2):131-137.
20. Chaiprapat S., Sdoodee S. Effects of wastewater recycling from natural rubber smoked sheet production on economic crops in southern Thailand. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2007, 51(3):577-590.
21. Chow P., Nakayama F.S., Blahnik B., Youngquist J.A., Coffelt T.A. Chemical constituents and physical properties of guayule wood and bark. Ind. Crops Prod. 2008, 28(3):303-308.
22. Chundawat S.P.S., Chang C., Gunawan V., McMahan C., Dale B.E. Guayule as a feedstock for lignocellulosic biorefineries using ammonia fiber expansion (AFEX) pretreatment. Ind. Crops Prod. 2012, 37(1):486-492.
23. Clark, F.J., Malani, S.R., 1986. Storage of guayule by densification.
24. Coates, W., 1991. Guayule harvesting equipment. Guayule natural rubber. A technical publication with emphasis on recent findings. J.W. Whitworth and E.E. Whitehead. Tucson: USDA: 241-260.
25. Coates W., Ayerza R., Ravetta D. Guayule rubber and latex content - seasonal variations over time in Argentina. Ind. Crops Prod. 2001.
26. Coffelt T.A., Nakayama F.S. Determining optimum harvest time for guayule latex and biomass. Ind. Crops Prod. 2010, 31(1):131-133.
27. Coffelt T.A., Nakayama F.S., Ray D.T., Cornish K., McMahan C.M., Williams C.F. Plant population, planting date, and germplasm effects on guayule latex, rubber, and resin yields. Ind. Crops Prod. 2009, 29(1):255-260.
28. Coffelt T.A., Nakayama F.S., Ray D.T., Cornish K., McMahan C.M. Post-harvest storage effects on guayule latex, rubber, and resin contents and yields. Ind. Crops Prod. 2009, 29:326-335.
29. Coffelt T.A., Ray D.T. Cutting height effects on guayule latex, rubber, and resin yields. Ind. Crops Prod. 2010, 32(3):264-268.
30. Coffelt T.A., Williams C.F. Characterization and recycling of waste water from guayule latex extraction. Ind. Crops Prod. 2009, 29(2-3):648-653.
31. Colvin H.A., Christoffersen L.P., McMahan C.M., Landis A. Securing the future of natural rubber - an American tire and bio-energy platform from guayule. 24th Annual AAIC Meeting. Industrial Crops: Developing Sustainable Solutions: Program and Abstracts 2013.
32. Cooper Tire, 2014. Begins Testing Tires Made with Guayule Component. Retrieved February 28, 2015, from. http://coopertire.com/News/Corporate-News-Releases/Cooper-Tire-Begins-Testing-Tires-Made-with-Guayule.aspx.
33. Cornish, K. 1996a. Hypoallergenic natural rubber products from parthenum argentatum (gray) and other non-Hevea brasiliensis species. US Patent 5580,942.
34. Cornish, K., Martin, J.A., Marentis, R.T., and Plamthottam, S., 2006. Extraction and fractionation of biopolymers and resins from plant materials. US Patent 2006/0106183.
35. Cornish, K., R.G. McCoy J.A. Martin, J. Williams and A. Nocera, 2011. Biopolymer extraction from plant materials. US 7923,039 B2.
36. Cornish K., Siler D.J. Hypoallergenic Guayule Latex: Research to Commercialization. Progress in New Crops 1996, 327-335. ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA. J. Janick (Ed.).
37. ® - the natural solution to latex allergy. Rubber Chem. Technol. 2008, 81(4):709-722.
38. Correll D.S., Johnston M.C. Manual of the Vascular Plants of Texas 1979, Texas Research Foundation, Renner, TX.
39. Davis W. The rubber industry's biological nightmare. Fortune 1997, 86-95.
40. Edsall L. Michelin working to combat leaf blight. Rubber Plast. News 2007.
41. Eka H.D., Tajul Aris Y., Wan Nadiah W.A. Potential use of Malaysian rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) seed as food, feed and biofuel. Int. Food Res. J. 2010, 17:527-534.
42. Estilai A. Biomass, rubber, and resin yield potentials of new guayule germplasm. Bioresour. Technol. 1991, 35(2):119-125.
43. Estilai A., Ray D.T. Genetics, cytogenetics, and breeding of guayule. Guayule Natural Rubber 1991, Office of Arid Lands, Univ. of Arizona, Tucson. J.W. Whitworth, E.E. Whitehead (Eds.).
44. EU-PEARLS, 2013. Final Report Summary - EU-PEARLS (EU-based Production and Exploitation of Alternative Rubber and Latex Sources). Netherlands European Union.
45. Field C.B., Campbell J.E., Lobell D.B. Biomass energy: the scale of the potential resource. Trends Ecol. Evol. 2008, 23(2):65-72.
46. Foster K.E., Karpiscak M.M. Arid lands plants for fuel. Biomass 1983, 3(4):269-285.
47. Foster K.E., Wright N.G., Fansler S.F. Guayule Natural Rubber Commercialization: A Scale-Up Feasibility Study 1991, Office of Arid Lands Studies, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ).
48. Foster M.A., Coffelt T.A. Guayule agronomics: establishment, irrigated production, and weed control. Ind. Crop. Prod. 2005, 22(1):27-40.
49. Foster M.A., Fowler J.L., Kleine L.G., Grote M.M., Puppala N. Performance of direct-seeded and transplanted guayule. Ind. Crops Prod. 2002, 15(1):23-31.
50. Foster M.A., Fowler J.L., Kleine L.G., Puppala N. Establishing new guayule lines by direct seeding. Ind. Crops Prod. 1999, 9(2):93-100.
51. George D.L., Gupta M., Dissanayake P. Evaluating New Guayule Varieties for Low-Allergenic Rubber Production 2005, Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation.
52. Gimbun J.S., Ali C.C., Kanwal S.C., Shah L.A., Ghazali N.H.M., Cheng C.K., Nurdin S. Biodiesel production from rubber seed oil using activated cement clinker as catalyst. Procedia Eng. 2013, 53:13-19.
53. Gutierrez, R., Kay, E.L., Serbin, D.J., 1985. Methods for storage of guayule plant material. US Patent 4530,995.
54. Hammond B.L., Polhamus L.G. Research on guayule (Parthenium argentatum), 1942-1959 1965, US Department of Agriculture.
55. Herman M.F. Encyclopedia of Polymer Science and Technology: Rubber, Guayule 2004, 11. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. K. Cornish, W.W. Schloman (Eds.).
56. Hirata Y., Kondo H., Ozawa Y. Natural rubber (NR) for the tyre industry. Chemistry, Manufacture and Applications of Natural Rubber 2014, Woodhead Publishing Limited. S. Kohjiya, Y. Ikeda (Eds.).
57. Holt G.A., Chow P., Wanjura J.D., Pelletier M.G., Coffelt T.A., Nakayama F.S. Termite resistance of biobased composition boards made from cotton byproducts and guayule bagasse. Ind. Crops Prod. 2012, 36(1):508-512.
58. Hunsaker D. Personal Communication, 2014 2014, Personal Communication at U.S Arid-Land Agricultural Research Center, Maricopa, AZ.
59. IRSG. (2012, March) 2014. Statistical Summary of World Rubber Situation, 2014, from. http://www.rubberstudy.com/documents/WebSiteData_2.0pdf.
60. IRSG Rubber Industry Report 2013, International Rubber Study Group.
61. ISO 14040, 2006. Environmental management - Life cycle assessment - Principles and Framework.
62. ISO 14044, 2006. Environmental management - Life cycle assessment - Requirements and guidelines.
63. ISRG Statistical Summary of World Rubber Situation. Natural Rubber Production 2014, International Rubber Study Group.
64. Jawjit W., Kroeze C., Rattanapan S. Greenhouse gas emissions from rubber industry in Thailand. J. Clean. Prod. 2010, 18(5):403-411.
65. Ji, W., 1994. Method for extracting polyisoprenes from plants. US Patent 5321,111.
66. Jones E.P. Recovery of rubber latex from Guayule shrub. Ind. Eng. Chem. 1948, 40(5):864-874.
67. Joshi R.M., Pegg M.J. Flow properties of biodiesel fuel blends at low temperatures. Fuel 2007, 86(1-2):143-151.
68. Kay, E.L.D., Gutierrez, R.M. 1984. Process for extracting rubber and by-products from guayule and guayule-like shrubs, US Patent 4435,337.
69. Kang B.-G., McMahan C. Medium and calcium nitrate influence on shoot regeneration from leaf explants of guayule. Ind. Crops Prod. 2014, 60:92-98.
70. Kelley O.J., Haise H.R., Markham L.C., Hunter A.S. Increased rubber production from thickly seeded guayule. J. Argon. 1946, 38(7):589-613.
71. Kroeger K.D., Stumpf D.K., LaGrandeur L.M.H., Hoffmann J.J. Determination of latex content in guayule. Ind. Crops Prod. 1996, 5(3):213-216.
72. Krukanont P., Prasertsan S. Geographical distribution of biomass and potential sites of rubber wood fired power plants in Southern Thailand. Biomass Bioenergy 2004, 26(1):47-59.
73. Kuester J.L. Conversion of guayule residues into fuel energy products. Biores. Technol. 1991, 35(2):217-222.
74. Laird D.A. The charcoal vision: a win-win-win scenario for simultaneously producing bioenergy, permanently sequestering carbon, while improving soil and water quality. Agron. J. 2008, 100:178-181.
75. Lane J. Birth of a feedstock: SGB, Yulex set to double guayule rubber yield via accelerated breeding platform. Biofuels Digest 2013.
76. Leong S.T., Muttamara S., Laortanakul P. Reutilization of wastewater in a rubber-based processing factory: a case study in Southern Thailand. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2003, 37(2):159-172.
77. Liu W., Hu H., Ma Y., Li H. Environmental and socioeconomic impacts of increasing rubber plantations in Menglun Township, Southwest China. Mt. Res. Dev. 2006, 26(3):245-253.
78. Lusher S.M., Richardson D.N. guayule plant extracts as recycling agents in hot mix asphalt with high reclaimed binder content. J. Mater. Civil Eng. 2014.
79. Malik S., Singh S. Role of plant genetic resources in sustainable agriculture. Indian. J. Crop Sci. 2006, 1(1-2):21-28.
80. Mani S., Sokhansanj S., Bi X., Turhollow A. Economics of producing fuel pellets from biomass. Appl. Eng. Agric. 2006, 22(3):421-426.
81. McGinnies W.G., Mills J.L. Guayule rubber production. The World War H Emergency Rubber Project: A Guide to Future Development 1980, Office of Arid Lands Studies, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona.
82. McIntyre D., Schloman W.W. Hypoallergenic Natural Rubber Latex and a Process for Making the Same 2000, The University of Akron.
83. Miyamoto S., Bucks D.A. Water quantity and quality requirements of guayule: current assessment. Agric. Water Manage. 1985, 10(3):205-219.
84. Mooibroek H., Cornish K. Alternative sources of natural rubber. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2000, 53:355-365.
85. Morshed M., Ferdous M.R., Mazumder M.S.I., Islam M.A., Uddin M.T. Rubber seed oil as a potential source for biodiesel production in Bangladesh. Fuel 2011, 90(10):2981-2986.
86. Nakayama F.S. Guayule as an alternative source of natural rubber. Natural Rubber: Biology, Cultivation, and Technology 1992, Elsevier Science Publishers. M.R. Sethuraj, N.M. Mathew (Eds.).
87. Nakayama F.S. Guayule future development. Ind. Crops Prod. 2005, 22(1):3-13.
88. Nakayama F.S., Bucks D.A., Gonzalez C.L., Foster M.A. Water and nutrient requirements of guayule under irrigated and dryland production. Guayule Natural Rubber 1991, 145-172. Office of Arid Lands Studies: University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ. J.W. Whitworth, Whitehead, EE (Eds.).
89. Nakayama F.S., Bucks D.A., Roth R.L., Gardner B.R. Guayule biomass production under irrigation. Biores. Technol. 1991, 35(2):173-178.
90. Nakayama F.S., Holt G.A., Coffelt T.A., Vinyard S.H., Faber A.L. Pellet fuel from guayule plant material. Association for the Advancement of Industrial Crops Annual Meeting Program and Abstracts 2003, 62.
91. Nakayama F.S., Vinyard S.H., Chow P., Bajwa D.S., Youngquist J.A., Muehl J.H., Krzysik A.M. Guayule as a wood preservative. Ind. Crops Prod. 2001, 14(2):105-111.
92. NAS Guayule: An Alternative Source of Natural Rubber 1977, National Academy of Sciences (NAS), Washington, DC.
93. OAE Thailand Agriculture Statistics 2012, Office of Agricultural Economics, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperative, Bangkok, Thailand.
94. PanAridus, 2014. PanAridus Mission, Retrieved Jan 17, 2014, from. http://www.panaridus.com/mission.
95. PanAridus. 2015, Web site home page. Retrieved February 27, 2015, from. http://www.panaridus.com.
96. Pascual-Villalobos M.J., López M.D. New application of guayule resin in controlled release formulations. Ind. Crops Prod. 2013, 43:44-49.
97. Polhamus L.G. Rubber: Botany, Production, and Utilization 1962, Leonard Hill [Books] Ltd., London.
98. Pushparajah E. Problems and potentials for establishing Hevea under difficult environmental conditions. Planter 1983.
99. Ramadhas A.S., Jayaraj S., Muraleedharan C. Biodiesel production from high FFA rubber seed oil. Fuel 2005, 84(4):335-340.
100. Rao D.V.K.N., Jessy M.D. Impact of effective soil volume on growth and yield of rubber (Hevea brasiliensis). Geoderma 2007, 141(3-4):332-340.
101. Ratnasingam J., Ioras F., Wenming L. Sustainability of the rubberwood sector in Malaysia. Notulae Botanicae Horti Agrobotanici Cluj-Napoca 2011, 39(2):305-311.
102. Rawat I., Kumar R.R., Mutanda T., Bux F. Biodiesel from microalgae: a critical evaluation from laboratory to large scale production. Appl. Energy 2013, 103:444-467.
103. Ray, D.T., 1986. Preliminary report of the first guayule uniform regional variety trials (1982-1985).
104. Ray D.T. Guayule: a source of natural rubber. New Crops 1993, 338-342. John Wiley and Sons. J.E.S.J. Janick (Ed.).
105. Ray D.T., Coffelt T.A., Dierig D.A. Breeding guayule for commercial production. Ind. Crops Prod. 2005, 22(1):15-25.
106. Ray D.T., Foster M.A., Coffelt T.A., McMahan C., Singh B.P. Guayule: culture, breeding and rubber production. Ind. Crops Uses 2010.
107. Ray D.T., Garrot D.J., Fangmeier D.D., Coates W. Clipping as an agronomic practice in guayule. Fourth International Guayule Research and Development Conference on Guayule: A Natural Rubber Source 1986.
108. Rerkasem K., Lawrence D., Padoch C., Schmidt-Vogt D., Ziegler A., Bruun T. Consequences of swidden transitions for crop and fallow biodiversity in Southeast Asia. Human Ecol. 2009, 37(3):347-360.
109. Rippel M.M., Galembeck F. Nanostructures and adhesion in natural rubber: new era for a classic. J. Brazil. Chem. Soc. 2009, 20(6):1024-1030.
110. Rodríguez-García R., Jasso de Rodríguez D., Angulo-Sánchez J.L. Trends in new crops and new uses. Guayule Production: Rubber and Biomass Response to Irrigation 2002, ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA.
111. Saidur R., Mekhilef S. Energy use, energy savings and emission analysis in the Malaysian rubber producing industries. Appl. Energy 2010, 87(8):2746-2758.
112. Samson R., Mani S., Boddey R., Sokhansanj S., Quesada D., Urquiaga S., Reis V., Ho Lem C. The potential of C4 perennial grasses for developing a global BIOHEAT industry. Crit. Rev. Plant Sci. 2005, 24(5-6):461-495.
113. Schloman W.W. Processing guayule for latex and bulk rubber. Ind. Crops Prod. 2005, 22(1):41-47.
114. Schloman W.W., Carlson D.W., Hilton A.S. Guayule extractables: influence of extraction conditions on yield and composition. Biomass 1988, 17(4):239-249.
115. Schloman W.W., Wagner J.P. Rubber and coproduct utilization. Guayule Natural Rubber 1991, 287-310. Office of Arid Lands Studies: University of Arizona, Tucson. J.W. Withworth, E.E. Whitehead (Eds.).
116. Schloman, W.W., 1991. Free-flowing guayule resin and bagasse mixtures and their use as fuel or soil amendent. US Patent 4988, 388.
117. Schloman W.W., Hively R.A., Krishen A., Andrews A.M. Guayule byproduct evaluation: extract characterization. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1983, 31(4):873-876.
118. Sfeir N., Chapuset T., Palu S., Lançon F., Amor A., García García J., Snoeck D. Technical and economic feasibility of a guayule commodity chain in Mediterranean Europe. Ind. Crops Prod. 2014, 59:55-62.
119. Siler D.J., Cornish K., Hamilton R.G. Absence of cross-reactivity of IgE antibodies from subjects allergic to Hevea brasiliensis latex with a new source of natural rubber latex from guayule (Parthenium argentatum). J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 1996, 98(5):895-902. Part 1.
120. SNR-i, 2015. Sustainable Natural Rubber Initiative, Retrieved February 27, 2015, from:. http://www.snr-i.org/.
121. Sopheaveasna M., Chinsathit S., Pookpakdi A., Kasemsap P. The effect of fertilizer and irrigation on yield and quality of rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) grown in Chanthaburi Province of Thailand. Nat. Sci. 2008, 42:226-237.
122. Soratana, K., 2013. Guayule plant [Photograph]. 2.3 MB.
123. Suyanto S., Tomich T.P., Otsuka K. Land tenure and farm management efficiency: the case of smallholder rubber production in customary land areas of Sumatra. Agrofor. Syst. 2001, 52(2):145-160.
124. Swanson C.L., Buchanan R.A., Otey F.H. Molecular weights of natural rubbers from selected temperate zone plants. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 1979, 23(3):743-748.
125. Taticchi P., Carbone P., Albino V. Corporate Sustainability 2013, Springer.
126. Tekasakul P., Tekasakul S. Environmental problems related to natural rubber production in Thailand. J. Aerosal Res. 2006, 21(2):122-129.
127. Thompson A.E., Ray D.T. Breeding guayule. Plant Breeding Reviews 1989, 93-165. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
128. Tingey D.C. Effect of spacing, irrigation, and fertilization on rubber production in Guayule Sown Directly in the Field. J. Agron. 1952, 44(6):298-302.
129. Tire Business, 2013. PanAridus joins Cooper-led guayule consortium. Retrieved February 28, 2015, from:. http://www.tirebusiness.com/article/20131220/NEWS/131229988/panaridus-joins-cooper-led-guayule-consortium.
130. UNCTAD and IRSG, 1997. Joint Workshop: Opportunities and constraints for the internalization of environmental costs and benefits into the price of rubber. Manchester, UK Secretariat of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. International Rubber Study Group.
131. UNCTAD and ISRG, 1998. Joint Workshop: Rubber and the Environment, Secretariat of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. International Rubber Study Group.
132. United Nations Statistics Division, 2014. UN Comtrade Database.
133. USDA and NRCS, 2014. The PLANTS Database. Plants Database Retrieved May 23, from. http://plants.usda.gov.
134. Uslu A., Faaij A.P.C., Bergman P.C.A. Pre-treatment technologies, and their effect on international bioenergy supply chain logistics. Techno-economic evaluation of torrefaction, fast pyrolysis and pelletisation. Energy 2008, 33(8):1206-1223.
135. van Beilen, J.B., 2006. Alternative Sources of Natural Rubber. Outputs from the EPOBIO project.
136. van Beilen J.B., Poirier Y. Guayule and Russian dandelion as alternative sources of natural rubber. Crit. Rev. Biotechnol. 2007, 27(4):217-231.
137. van Beilen J.B., Poirier Y. Establishment of new crops for the production of natural rubber. Trends Biotechnol. 2007, 25(11):522-529.
138. Vijayakumar K.R., Dey S.K., Chandrasekhar T.R., Devakumar A.S., Mohankrishna T., Sanjeeva Rao P., Sethuraj M.R. Irrigation requirement of rubber trees (Hevea brasiliensis) in the subhumid tropics. Agric. Water Manage. 1998, 35(3):245-259.
139. ® polylactide production. Ind. Biotechnol. 2010, 6(4):212-224.
140. Wagner J.P., Parma D.G. Establishing a domestic guayule natural rubber industry. Polym. Plast. Technol. Eng. 1989, 28(7-8):753-777.
141. Wagner J.P., Soderman K.L., Konzen R., Akgerman A. Toxic species evolution from guayule fireplace logs. Bioresour. Technol. 1991, 35(2):203-208.
142. Weber, Schaer Price development chart for natural rubber. Natural Rubber, Natural Latex. 2014.
143. Wijesuriya W., Dissanayake D.M.A.P., Herath K., Edirisinghe J., Abeywardene V. Some issues related to sustainability in the smallholder rubber sector: a case study of three major rubber growing districts. J. Rubber Res. Inst. Sri Lanka 2007, 88:59-76.
144. Wood M. Guayule. Agric. Res. 2009, 57(2):18-19.
145. Ziegler A.D., Fox J.M., Xu J. The rubber juggernaut. Science 2009, 324(5930):1024-1025.