The Pressing Challenges of Mangrove Rehabilitation: Pond Reversion and Coastal Protection

Treatise on Estuarine and Coastal Science

Volumn 10, Issue , 2012, Pages 217-244

  Primavera, J H ^a   Rollon, R N ^b   Samson, M S ^b,c  

^a SOUTHEAST ASIAN FISHERIES DEVELOPMENT CENTER   (Philippines)

^b UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES   (Philippines)

^c DE LA SALLE UNIVERSITY   (Philippines)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84961184928     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-374711-2.01010-X     Document Type: Chapter

References (154)

1. Agaloos, B.D., 1994. Re-afforestation of mangrove forests in the Republic of the Philippines. Proceeding of International Tropical Timber Organization Workshop: Development and Dissemination of Re-Afforestation Techniques of Mangrove Forests. Japan Association for Mangroves, Japan, pp. 75-98.
2. Alongi, D.M., 2008. Mangrove forests: Resilience, protection from tsunamis, and responses to global climate change. Estuarine coastal Shelf Science 76, 1-13.
3. AMH, 2009. Coastal Engineering Study for the Community-based Mangrove Rehabilitation Project, Pedada Bay, Ajuy, Iloilo-Final Report. AMH Philippines, Inc., UP Diliman Campus, Quezon City. Unpublished report, 19 pp., 5 annexes (9 Dec. 2009).
4. Aksornkoae, S., 1996. Reforestation of mangrove forests in Thailand: a case study of Pattani Province. In: Field, C.D. (Ed.), Restoration of Mangrove Ecosystems. International Society of Mangrove Ecosystems and ITTO, Okinawa, pp. 52-63.
5. Alongi, D.M., 2008. Mangrove forests: resilience, protection from tsunamis, and responses to global climate change. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 76, 1-13.
6. Anwahi, A., Al Zahouni, M.A.R., Al Janahi, A., Cherian, T., 1998. Feasibility studies on mangrove Avicennia marina cultivation below ground level along the bank of a dugout pond. Marine Freshwater Research 49 (4), 359-361.
7. Baconguis, S.R., Moreno, M.L.Q., 1995. Algal bloom: Its cause and impact to mangrove plantation and potential utilization in Siargao Island, Surigao del Norte. The Philippine Lumberman, May-June 1995, pp. 12-16.
8. Bagalihog, S.D., 2000. Effects of collection method and height class on the survival and growth of tangal (Cerios tagal [Perrottet C.B. Robinson]) wildings. DENR-7 Ecosystems Research Digest 10 (2), 1-14.
9. Bagarinao, T.U., Primavera, J.H., 2005. Code of Practice for Sustainable Use of Mangrove Ecosystems for Aquaculture in Southeast Asia. SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department, Iloilo, 48 pp.
10. Barbier, E.B., Koch, E.W., Silliman, B.R., Hacker, S.D., Wolanski, E., Primavera, J., Granek, E.D., Polasky, S., Aswani, S., Cramer, L.A., Stoms, D.M., Kennedy, C.J., Bael, D., Kappel, C.V., Perillo, G.M.E., Reed, D.J., 2008. Coastal ecosystem-based management with non-linear ecological functions and values. Science 319, 321-323.
11. Bosire, J.O., Dahdouh-Guebas, F., Kairo, J.G., Wartel, S., Kazungu, J., Koedam, N., 2006. Success rates of recruited tree species and their contribution to the structural development of reforested mangrove stands. Marine Ecology Progress Series 325, 85-91.
12. Bosire, J.O., Dahdouh-Guebas, F., Walton, M., Crona, B.I., Lewis, R.R., III, Field, C., Kairo, J.G., Koedam, N., 2008. Functionality of restored mangroves: a review. Aquatic Botany 89, 251-259.
13. Brown, B., 2006. 5 Steps to Successful, Ecological Mangrove Rehabilitation. Mangrove Action Project and Yayasan Akar Rumput Laut, Yogyakarta, 51 pp.
14. Brown, W.H., Fischer, A.F., 1918. Philippine Mangrove Swamps. Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources. Bureau of Forestry Bulletin No. 17. Bureau of Printing, Manila, 132 pp.
15. Camargo, S.J., Robertson, A.W., Gaffney, S.J., Smyth, P., Ghil, M., 2007. Cluster analysis of typhoon tracks, part II: large-scale circulation and ENSO. Journal of Climate 20, 3654-3676.
16. CDRC, 2008. Philippine Disaster Report-Disaster Statistical Report '08. Citizens' Disaster Response Center, Quezon City, Philippines, 15 pp.
17. Chan, H.T., 1996. Mangrove reforestation in Peninsular Malaysia: a case study of Matang. In: Field, C.D. (Ed.), Restoration of Mangrove Ecosystems. International Society of Mangrove Ecosystems and ITTO, Okinawa, pp. 64-75.
18. Chan, H.T., Baba, S., 2009. Manual on guidelines for rehabilitation of coastal forests damaged by natural hazards in the Asia-Pacific Region. International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems (ISME) and International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO), 66 pp.
19. Chan, H.T., Husin, N., 1987. Propagule dispersal, establishment and survival of Rhizophora mucronata. Bakawan 6 (3), 6-8.
20. Chansanoh, P., 1993. Community-based mangrove rehabilitation and management: a case study in Sikao District, Trang Province, Southern Thailand. Regional Development Dialogue 14 (1), 111-122.
21. Choo, P.S., 1996. Aquaculture development in the mangrove. In: Suzuku, S., Hayase, S., Kawahara, S. (Eds), Sustainable Utilization of Coastal Ecosystems. Proceedings of the Seminar on Sustainable Utilization of Coastal Ecosystems for Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries in Developing Countries. JIRCAS and Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Japan, pp. 63-71.
22. Choy, S.C., Booth, W.E., 1994. Prolonged inundation and ecological changes in the Avicennia mangrove: implications for conservation and management. Hydrobiologia 285, 237-247.
23. Clarke, P.J., 1993. Dispersal of grey mangrove (Avicennia marina) propagules in southeastern Australia. Aquatic Botany 45, 193-204.
24. Cochard, R., Ranamukhaarachchi, S.L., Shivakoti, G.P., Shipin, O.V., Edwards, P.J., Seeland, K.T., 2008. The 2004 tsunami in Aceh and Southern Thailand: a review on coastal ecosystems, wave hazards and vulnerability. Perspective in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 10, 3-40.
25. Costanza, R., d'Arge, R., de Groot, R., Farber, S., Grasso, M., Hannon, B., Limburg, K., Naeem, S., O'Neill, R.V., Paruelo, J., Raskin, R.G., Sutton, P., van den Belt, M., 1997. The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature 387 (6230), 255.
26. Cuc, N.T.K., 2004. The application of GIS to management of mangrove plantations at Giao Thuy District. In: Hong, P.N. (Ed.), Mangrove Ecosystem in the Red River Delta Zone. Vietnam National University, Center for Natural Resources and Environmental Studies, and Mangrove Ecosystem Research Division, Hanoi. Agricultural Publishing House, Hanoi, pp. 347-355.
27. DENR-CMMO, 2010. Status of mangroves. In: Round Table Discussion on the Reversion of Idle/Abandoned Ponds, Quezon City, Philippines, 12 January 2010.
28. Dahdouh-Guebas, F., Jayatissa, L.P., Di Nitto, D., Bosire, J.O., Lo Seen, D., Koedam, N., 2005. How effective were mangroves as a defense against the recent tsunami? Current Biology 15 (12), R443-R447.
29. Danielsen, F., Sorensen, M.K., Olwig, M.F., Selvam, V., Parish, F., Burgess, N.D., Hiraishi, T., Karunagaran, V.M., Rasmussen, M.S., Hansen, L.B., Quarto, A., Suryadiputra, N., 2005. The Asian tsunami: a protective role for vegetation. Science 310, 643.
30. Das, S., Vincent, J.R., 2009. Mangroves protected villages and reduced death toll during Indian super cyclone. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences Early Edition, doi:10.10773/pnas.0810440106.
31. de Leon, R.O.D., White A.T., 1999. Mangrove rehabilitation in the Philippines. In: Streever, W. (Ed.), An International Perspective on Wetland Rehabilitation. Kluwer, Dordrecht, pp. 37-42.
32. Duarte, C.M., Dennison, W.C., Orth, R.J.W., Carruthers, T.J.B., 2008. The charisma of coastal ecosystems: addressing the imbalance. Estuaries and Coasts 31, 233-238.
33. Duke, N.C., 2006. Australia's mangroves. University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia, 200 pp.
34. EJF, 2006. Mangroves: Nature's Defence Against Tsunamis-a Report on the Impact of Mangrove Loss and Shrimp Farm Development on Coastal Defences. Environmental Justice Foundation, London, 29 pp.
35. Ellison, J.C., 1998. Impacts of sediment burial on mangroves. Marine Pollution Bulletin 37, 420-426.
36. Ellison, A.M., 2000. Mangrove restoration: do we know enough? Restoration Ecology 8 (3), 219-229.
37. Elster, C., 2000. Reasons for reforestation success and failure with three mangrove species in Columbia. Forest Ecology and Management 131, 201-214.
38. Elsner, J.B., Liu, K., 2003. Examining ENSO-typhoon hypothesis. Climate Research 25, 43-54.
39. Erftemeijer, P.L.A., Lewis, R.R., III, 2000. Planting mangroves on intertidal mudflats: habitat restoration or habitat conversion? Proceedings of the ECOTONE VIII Seminar "Enhancing Coastal Ecosystems Restoration for the 21st Century". Ranong, Thailand. Royal Forest Department of Thailand, Bangkok, pp. 156-165.
40. Ewel, K.C., Twilley, R.R., Ong, J.E., 1998. Different kinds of mangrove forests provide different goods and services. Global Ecology and Biogeography 7, 83-94.
41. FAO, 2003. Status and trends in mangrove area extent worldwide. By Wilkie, M.L. and Fortuna, S. Forest Resources Assessment Working Paper No. 63. Forest Resources Division. FAO, Rome (unpublished).
42. FAO, 2007. The world's mangroves, 1980-2005. FAO Forestry Paper 153, 77 pp.
43. Field, C.D. (Ed.), 1996. Restoration of Mangrove Ecosystems. International Society of Mangrove Ecosystems and ITTO, Okinawa, 250 pp.
44. Field, C.D., 1998. Rehabilitation of mangrove ecosystems: an overview. Marine Pollution Bulletin 37 (8-12), 383-392.
45. Fisilier, J.L., 1990. Living off the tides. Environmental Database on Wetland Interventions, Ministry of Agriculture, Nature Management and Fisheries; Ministry of Housing, Planning and Environment; and Ministry of Transport and Public Works. Government of the Netherlands, 119 pp.
46. Fritz, S.M., Blount, C., 2007. Protection from cyclones. In: Braatz, A., Fortuna, S., Broadhead, J., Leslie, R. (Eds.), Coastal protection in the aftermath of the Indian Ocean tsunami: what role for forest and trees? Proceedings of the Regional Technical Workshop, Khao Lak, Thailand. RAP Publication 2007/007. FAO-RAPA, Bangkok, pp. 37-60.
47. Gilman, E.L., Ellison, J., Duke, N.C., Field, C. 2008. Threats to mangroves from climate change and adaptation options. Aquatic Botany 89, 237-250.
48. Hachinohe, H., Suko, O., Ida, A., 1997. Nursery Manual for Mangrove Species at Benoa Port in Bali. Ministry of Forestry and Estate Crops, Indonesia and Japan International Cooperation Agency, 49 pp.
49. Hamilton, L.S., Snedaker, S.C. (Eds.), 1984. Handbook for Mangrove Area Management. IUCN/UNESCO/UNEP. East-West Centre, Honolulu, HI.
50. Hashim, R., Kamali, B., Tamin, M.N., Zakaria, R., 2010. An integrated approach to coastal rehabilitation: mangrove restoration in Sungai Haji Dorani, Malaysia. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 86 (1), 118-124.
51. Herre, A.C.W.T., Mendoza, J., 1929. Bangos culture in the Philippine Islands. Philippine Journal of Science 38, 451-509.
52. Hogarth, P.J., 1999. The Biology of Mangroves. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 223 pp.
53. Hong, P.N., 1996. Restoration of mangrove ecosystems in Vietnam: a case study of Can Gio District, Ho Chi Minh City. In: Field, C.D. (Ed.), Restoration of Mangrove Ecosystems. International Society of Mangrove Ecosystems and ITTO, Okinawa, pp. 76-96.
54. Hossain, Z., Lin, C.K., 2001. Diversified uses of abandoned shrimp ponds-a case study in the upper Gulf of Thailand. ITCZM Monograph No. 5, 23pp.
55. Janiola, E.S., Jr., 1996. Mangrove rehabilitation and coastal resource management in Cogtong Bay: addressing mangrove management issues through community participation. In: Ferrer, E.M., dela Cruz, L.P., Domingo, M.A. (Eds.), Seeds of Hope. University of the Philippines and NGO Technical Working Group for Fisheries Reform and Advocacy, Quezon City, pp. 49-65.
56. Kairo, J.G., Dahdouh-Guebas, F., Gwaba, P.O., Ochieng, C., Koedam, N., 2002. Regeneration status of mangrove forests in Mida Creek, Kenya: a compromised or secured future? AMBIO 31, 562-568.
57. Kaly, U.L., Jones, G.P., 1998. Mangrove restoration: a potential tool for coastal management in tropical developing countries. AMBIO 27, 656-661.
58. Kathiresan, K., Bingham, B.L., 2001. Biology of mangroves and mangrove ecosystems. Advances in Marine Biology 40, 81-251.
59. Kathiresan, K., Rajendran, N., 2005. Coastal mangrove forests mitigated tsunami. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 65, 601-606.
60. Katon, B.M., Pomeroy, R.S., Garces, L.R., Ring, M., 2000. Rehabilitating the mangrove resources of Cogtong Bay, Philippines: a comanagement perspective. Coastal Management 28, 29-37.
61. Kitaya, Y., Jintana, V., Piriyayotha, S., Jaijing, D., Yabuki, K., Izutani, S., Nishimiya, A., Iwasaki, M., 2002. Early growth of seven mangrove species planted at different elevations in a Thai estuary. Trees 16, 150-154.
62. Kjerfve, B., 1990. Manual for investigation of hydrological processes in mangrove ecosystems. UNESCO/UNDP Regional Project (RAS/86/120), 79 pp.
63. Lapis, E.B., 1999. Pest to watch: the Ambrosia beetle. Canopy International 25 (3), 10.
64. Lee, S.K., Tan, W.H., Havanond, S., 1996. Regeneration and colonization of mangrove on clay-filled reclaimed land in Singapore. Hydrobiologia 319, 23-35.
65. Lewis, R.R., Gilmore, R.G., 2007. Important considerations to achieve successful mangrove forest restoration with optimum fish habitat. Bulletin of Marine Science 80(3), 823-837.
66. Lewis, R.R., Marshall, M.J., 1997. Principles of successful restoration of shrimp aquaculture ponds back to mangrove forests. Programa/resumes de Marcuba '97, September 15/20. Palacio de Convenciones de La Habana, Cuba, 126 pp.
67. Lewis, R.R., 2005. Ecological engineering for successful management and reforestation of mangrove forests. Ecological Engineering, 24, 403-418.
68. Lewis, R.R., 2009. Methods and criteria for successful mangrove forest restoration. In: Perillo, G.E., Wolanski, E., Cahoon, D.R., Brinson, M.M. (Eds.), Coastal Wetlands: An Integrated Ecosystem Approach. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 787-800.
69. Machiwa, J.F., Hallberg, R.O., 1995. Flora and crabs in a mangrove forest partly disturbed by human activities, Zanzibar. AMBIO 24 (7-8), 492-496.
70. Macintosh, D., 1996. Mangroves and coastal aquaculture: doing something positive for the environment. Aquaculture Asia 1 (2), 3-8.
71. Mantilla, C.L., Melana, E.E., 1991. Folk technologies of mangrove reforestation in Bohol. DENR-7 Ecosystems Research Digest 1 (2), 50-57.
72. Massel, S.R., Furukawa, K., Brinkman, R.M., 1999. Surface wave propagation in mangrove forests. Fluid Dynamics Research 24, 219-249.
73. Matsui, N., Suekuni, J., Nogami, M., Havanond, S., Salikul, P., 2010. Mangrove rehabilitation dynamics and soil organic carbon changes as a result of full hydraulic restoration and re-grading of a previously intensively managed shrimp pond. Wetlands Ecology and Management 18, 233-242.
74. Mazda, Y., Magi, M., Kogo, M., Hong, P.N., 1997. Mangroves as a costal protection from waves in the Tong King Delta, Vietnam. Mangroves and Salt Marshes 1, 127-135.
75. Mazda, Y., Magi, M., Ikeda, Y., Kurokawa, T., Asano, T., 2006. Wave reduction in a mangrove forest dominated by Sonneratia sp. Wetlands Ecology and Management 14, 365-378.
76. Maxwell, G.S., Li, S.W., 2006. Barnacle infestation on the bark of Kandelia candel (L.) Druce and Aegiceras corniculatum (L.) Blanco. ISME/GLOMIS Electronic Journal 5 (2), 1-3.
77. Mcleod, E., Salm, R.V., 2006. Managing Mangroves for Resilience to Climate Change. IUCN, Gland, 64 pp.
78. McNeely, J.A., Dobias, R.J., 1991. Economic incentives for conserving biological diversity in Thailand. AMBIO 20 (2), 86-90.
79. Melana, E.E., 1991. Preliminary assessment of bungalon (Avicennia marina [Forsk] Viech) as mangrove reforestation species. DENR-7 Ecosystems Research Digest 1 (1), 25-29.
80. Melana, E.E., Bagalihog, D., 1993. Feasibility of tangal (Ceriops tagal) for enrichment planting of degraded mangrove stand. DENR-7 Ecosystems Research Digest 3 (2), 76-84.
81. Melana, D.M., Atchue, J., III, Yao, C.E., Edwards, R., Melana, E.E., Gonzales, H.I., 2000. Mangrove Management Handbook. Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Manila, Philippines through the Coastal Resource Management Project, Cebu, 96 pp.
82. Mumby, P.J., 2006. Connectivity of reef fish between mangroves and coral reefs: algorithms for the design of marine reserves at seascape scales. Biological Conservation 128, 215-222.
83. Nicholls, R.J., Cazenave, A., 2010. Sea-level rise and its impact on coastal zones. Science 328, 1517-1520.
84. Osborne, D.J., Berjak, P., 1997. The making of mangroves: the remarkable pioneering role played by the seeds of Avicennia marina. Endeavour 21 (4), 143-148.
85. Othman, M.A., 1994. Value of mangroves in coastal protection. Hydrobiologia 285, 277-282.
86. Primavera, J.H., 1993. A critical review of shrimp pond culture in the Philippines. Reviews in Fisheries Science 1, 151-201.
87. Primavera, J.H., 1995. Mangroves and brackishwater pond culture in the Philippines. Hydrobiologia 295, 303-309.
88. Primavera, J.H., 2000a. Development and conservation of Philippine mangroves: institutional issues. Ecological Economics 35, 91-106.
89. Primavera, J.H., 2000b. Integrated mangrove-aquaculture systems in Asia. Integrated Coastal Zone Management Autumn edition, 121-130.
90. Primavera, J.H., 2001. Community-based rehabilitation of mangroves. In: IIRR, IDRC, NACA and ICLARM, Utilizing Different Aquatic Resources for Livelihoods in Asia: A Resource Book. International Institute of Rural Reconstruction, International Development Research Centre, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Network of Aquaculture Centers in Asia-Pacific and International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, pp. 333-339.
91. Primavera, J.H., 2002. CRM in the Philippines: seeds of hope. 3rd Meeting of the Project on Asia-Pacific Cooperation for the Sustainable Use of Renewable Natural Resources in Biosphere Reserves and Similarly Managed Areas (ASPACO). Okinawa, Japan, 1-6 October 2002, pp. 64-72.
92. Primavera, J.H., 2005. Mangroves, fishponds, and the quest for sustainability. Science 310 (5745), 57-59.
93. Primavera, J.H., Agbayani, R.F., 1997. Comparative strategies in community-based mangrove rehabilitation programmes in the Philippines. In: Hong, P.N., Ishwaran, N., San, H.T., Tri, N.H., Tuan, M.S. (Eds.), Proceedings of Ecotone V, Community Participation in Conservation, Sustainable Use and Rehabilitation of Mangroves in Southeast Asia. UNESCO, Japanese Man and the Biosphere National Committee and Mangrove Ecosystem Research Centre, Vietnam, pp. 229-243.
94. Primavera, J.H., Altamirano, J.P., Lebata, M.J.H.L., delos Reyes, A.A., Jr., Pitogo, C.L., 2007. Mangroves and shrimp pond culture effluents in Aklan, Panay Is., Central Philippines. Bulletin of Marine Science 80 (3), 795-804.
95. Primavera, J.H., Binas, J.B., Samonte-Tan, G.P.B., Lebata, M.J., Alava, V.R., Walton, M., LeVay, L., 2010. Mud crab pen culture-replacement of fish feed requirement and impacts on mangrove community structure. Aquaculture Research 41 (8), 1211-1220.
96. Primavera, J.H., Esteban, J.M.A., 2008. A review of mangrove rehabilitation in the Philippines: successes, failures and future prospects. Wetlands Ecology and Management 16 (3): 173-253.
97. Primavera, J.H., Sadaba, R.B., Lebata, M.J.H.L., Altamirano, J.P., 2004. Handbook of mangroves in the Philippines-Panay. SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department (Philippines) and UNESCO Man and the Biosphere ASPACO Project, 106 pp.
98. Quartel, S., Kroon, J., Augustinus, P.G.E.F., Van Santen, P., Tri, N.H., 2007. Wave attenuation in coastal mangroves in the Red River Delta, Vietnam. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 29, 576-584.
99. Qureshi, M.T., 1990. Experimental plantation for rehabilitation of mangrove forests in Pakistan. First Report. UNDP/UNESCO Regional Project for Research and Its Applicatin to the Management of the Mangroves of Asia and the Pacific (RAS/86/ 120). Sind Forest Department. Government of Sind, Karachi, Pakistan.
100. Qureshi, M.T., 1996. Restoration of mangroves in Pakistan. In: Field, C.D. (Ed.), Restoration of Mangrove Ecosystems. International Society of Mangrove Ecosystems and ITTO, Okinawa, pp. 126-142.
101. Rajendran, N., Kathiresan, K., 1996. Effect of effluent from a shrimp pond on shoot biomass of mangrove seedlings. Aquaculture Research 27, 745-747.
102. Ravishankar, T., Ramasubramanian, R., 2004. Manual on Mangrove Nursery Raising Techniques. M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation, Chennai, 48 pp.
103. Reyes, J.L., 2010. Ibajay's Mangrove Ecotourism Park: a nature's haven. Panay News 26 January 2010.
104. Ribera, P., García-Herrera, R., Gimeno, L., Hernández, E., 2005. Typhoons in the Philippine Islands, 1901-1934. Climate Research 29, 85-90.
105. Robertson, A.I., Alongi, D.M. (Eds.), 1992. Tropical Mangrove Ecosystems. Coastal and Estuarine Studies 41. American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC.
106. Rubin, D.M., Nelson, J.M., Topping, D.J., 1998. Relation of inversely graded deposits to suspended-sediment grain-size evolution during the 1996 flood experiment in Grand Canyon. Geology 26 (2), 99-102.
107. Saenger, P., 1996. Mangrove restoration in Australia: a case study of Brisbane International Airport. In: Field, C.D. (Ed.), Restoration of Mangrove Ecosystems. International Society of Mangrove Ecosystems and ITTO, Okinawa, pp. 36-51.
108. Saenger, P., 2002. Mangrove Ecology, Silviculture and Conservation. Kluwer, Dordrecht, 360 pp.
109. Saenger, P., Hegerl, E.J., Davie, J.D.S., 1983. Global status of mangrove ecosystems. Environmentalist 3 (supplement 3), 88.
110. Saenger, P., Siddiqi, N.A., 1993. Land from sea: the mangrove afforestation program of Bangladesh. Ocean Coastal Management 20, 23-39.
111. Sage, P.S., 2009. Parasitic outbreaks upon Avicennia marina within Kalibo mangrove. Unpublished report, 14 February 2009.
112. Samson, M.S., Licuanan, W.Y., 2002. The socio-economic conditions of the coastal communities and coastal resource management along the Pacific coast of the Philippines. UPV Journal of Natural Science 7 (1-2), 169-178.
113. Samson, M.S., Rollon, R.N., 2008. Growth performance of mangroves at the enhancement sites: need to revisit forest management strategies. AMBIO 37 (4), 234-240.
114. Satumanatpan, S., Keough, M.J., 1999. Effect of barnacles on the survival and growth of temperate mangrove seedlings. Marine Ecology Progress Series 181, 191-199.
115. Schuster, W.H., 1952. Fish culture in the brackish water ponds of Java. IPFC Special Publication No. 1, 143 pp.
116. Sen, T.M., Tan, D.V., Anh, P.H., Miyamoto, C., Suda, S., Asano, T., 2004. Effects of some ecological factors and planting techniques on the survival rate and growth performance of Sonneratia caseolaris (L.) Engler in Thai Binh and Nam Dinh provinces. In: Hong, P.N. (Ed.), Mangrove Ecosystem in the Red River Delta Zone. Vietnam National University, Center for Natural Resources and Environmental Studies, and Mangrove Ecosystem Research Division, Hanoi. Agricultural Publishing House, Hanoi, pp. 253-270.
117. Shokita, S., 1989. Appendix to Report-Training Course on Life History of Selected Species of Flora and Fauna in the Mangrove Ecosystems, Thailand, 2-16 October 1985. UNDP/ UNESCO Research and Training Pilot Programme on Mangrove Ecosystems in Asia and the Pacific (RAS/79/002) and National Mangrove Committee of Thailand, 46 pp.
118. Siddall, S.E., Atchue, L.A., III, Murray, P.L., Jr., 1985. Mariculture development in mangroves: a case study of the Philippines, Panama and Ecuador. In: Clark, I.R. (Ed.), Coastal Resources Management: Development Case Studies. Renewable Resources Information Series, Coastal Management Publication No. 3. Prepared for the National Park Service, US Department of the Interior, and the US Agency for International Development. Research Planning Institute, Columbia, SC.
119. Siddiqi, N.A., Khan, M.A.S., 1996. Planting techniques for mangroves on new accretions in the coastal areas of Bangladesh. In: Field, C.D. (Ed.), Restoration of Mangrove Ecosystems. International Society of Mangrove Ecosystems and ITTO, Okinawa, pp. 126-142.
120. Siddiqi, N.A., Islam, M.R., Khan, M.A.S., Shahidullah, M., 1993. Mangrove nurseries in Bangladesh. ISME Mangrove Ecosystems Occasional Papers No. 1. Bangladesh Forest Research Institute, Barisal.
121. Sinohin, V.O., Flores, J.S., 1992. Tussock moth attacks mangrove plantation. Canopy International 18 (3), 1-2.
122. Sinohin, V.O., Garcia, D.C., Baconguis, S.R., 1996. Manual on Mangrove Nursery Establishment and Development. Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau, Department of Environment and Natural Resources, College, Laguna, 18 pp.
123. Smith, T.J., 1987. Effect of seed predators and light level on the distribution of Avicennia marina (Forsk.) Vierh. In tropical, tidal forests. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 25, 43-52.
124. Snedaker, S.C., Biber, P.D., 1996. Restoration of mangroves in the United States of America: a case study in Florida. In: Field, C.D. (Ed.), Restoration of Mangrove Ecosystems. ISME, Okinawa, pp. 170-188.
125. Soemodihardjo, S., Wiroatmodjo, S.P., Mulia, F., Harahap, M.K., 1996. Restoration of mangroves in Indonesia: a case study of Tembilahan, Sumatra In: Field, C.D. (Ed.), Restoration of Mangrove Ecosystems. International Society of Mangrove Ecosystems and ITTO, Okinawa, pp. 97-110.
126. Stevenson, N.J., Lewis, R.R., III, Burbridge, P.R., 1999. Disused shrimp ponds and mangrove rehabilitation. In: Streever, W. (Ed.), An International Perspective on Wetland Rehabilitation. Kluwer, Dordrecht, pp. 277-297.
127. Stanley, O.D., Lewis, R.R., III, 2009. Strategies for mangrove rehabilitation in an eroded coastline of Selangor, Peninsular Malaysia. Journal of Coastal Development 12 (3), 144-156.
128. Tan K.H., Ong, J.E., 2008. Coastal vegetation rehabilitation for the mitigation of coastal hazards-The Malaysian experience. ISME Mangrove Ecosystem Proceedings-5. Proceedings of the workshop and meetings on Guidelines for the rehabilitation of mangroves and other coastal forests damaged by Tsunamis and other natural hazards in the Asia Pacific region. ITTO/ISME PPD 134/07 Rev 1F. Meeting: Okinawa Japan, 15-16 June, 2007 and Workshop: Bangkok Thailand, 23 August 2008.
129. Taniguchi, K., Takashima, S., Suko, O., 1999. The Silviculture Manual for Mangroves in Bali and Lombok. Ministry of Forestry and Estate Crops, Indonesia and Japan International Cooperation Agency, 35 pp.
130. Tantipuknont, S., Paphavasit, N., Aksornkae, S., 1994. Growth and survival rate of three mangrove seedlings planted on the abandoned shrimp pond, Changwat Samut Songkram. In: Sudara, S., Wilkinson, C., Chou, L.M. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Third ASEAN-Australia Symposium on Living Coastal Resources: Research Papers 2. Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, pp. 373-375.
131. Terrados, J., Thampanya, U., Srichai, N., Kheowvongsri, P., Geertz-Hansen, O., Boromthanarath, S., Panapitukkul, N., Duarte, C.M., 1997. The effect of increased sediment accretion on the survival and growth of Rhizophora apiculata seedlings. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 45, 697-701.
132. Thampanya, U., Vermaat, J.E., Duarte, C.M., 2002. Colonization success of common Thai mangrove species as a function of exposure to water turbulence. Marine Ecology Progress Series 237, 111-120.
133. Tibbetts, J., 2006. Louisiana's wetlands: a lesson in nature appreciation. Environmental Health Perspectives 114A, 40-43.
134. Toledo, G., Rojas, A., Bashan, Y., 2001. Monitoring of black mangrove restoration with nursery-reared seedlings on an arid coastal lagoon. Hydrobiologia 444, 101-109.
135. Tri, N.H., Ninh, N.H., Lien, T.V., Trinh, B., Chinh, N.T., Trong, T.D., Secretario, F.T., 1999. Vietnam core research site 1996-1999 final report: Economic environmental modeling of coastal zone in the Red River Delta, Vietnam. LOICZ Reports and Studies 17, 1-48.
136. Trino, A.T., Rodriguez, E.M., 2002. Pen culture of Scylla serrata in tidal flats reforested with mangrove trees. Aquaculture 211, 125-134.
137. UNEP, 2005. Assessing coastal vulnerability-developing a global index for measuring risk. United Nations Environment Programme, 54 pp.
138. UNEP-WCMC, 2006. In the front line: shoreline protection and other ecosystem services from mangroves and coral reefs. United Nations Environment Programme-World Conservation and Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, 33 pp.
139. Untawale, A.G., 1996. Restoration of mangroves along the central west coast of India. In: Field, C.D. (Ed.), Restoration of Mangrove Ecosystems. ISME, Okinawa, pp. 111-125.
140. Valiela, I., Bowen, J.L., Cork, J.K., 2001. Mangrove forests: one of the world's threatened major tropical environments. Bioscience 51, 808-815.
141. Van Speybroeck, D., 1992. Regeneration strategy of mangroves along the Kenya coast: a first approach. Hydrobiologia 247, 243-251.
142. Villaluz, D.K., 1953. Fish Farming in the Philippines. Bookman, Manila.
143. Walsh, J.P., Nittrouer, C.A., 2004. Mangrove-bank sedimentation in a mesotidal environment with large sediment supply, Gulf of Papua. Marine Geology 208, 225-248.
144. Walton, M.E., LeVay, L., Lebata, J.H., Binas, J., Primavera, J.H., 2007. Assessment of the effectiveness of mangrove rehabilitation using exploited and non-exploited indicator species. Biological Conservation 138, 180-188.
145. Walton, M.E.M., Samonte-Tan, G.P.B., Primavera, J.H., Edwards-Jones, G., Le Vay, L., 2006. Are mangroves worth replanting? The direct economic benefits of a community-based reforestation project. Environmental Conservation 33 (4), 335-343.
146. Williams, M., Coles, R., Primavera, J.H., 2007. A lesson from cyclone Larry: an untold story of the success of good coastal planning. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 71, 364-367.
147. Wolanski, E., Boorman, L.A., Chicharo, L., Langlois-Saliou, E., Lara, R., Platerm A.J., Uncles, R.J., Zalewski, M., 2004. Ecohydrology as a new tool for sustainable management of estuaries and coastal waters. Wetlands Ecology and Management 12, 235-276.
148. Yap, W.G., 1997. Can the Philippines produce enough fish for the multitude? Aquaculture Asia April-June, 32-38.
149. Yap, W.G. Assessment of FLA holdings in four pilot regions. Strategy for Sustainable Aquaculture Development for Poverty Reduction, Philippines (ADTA 4708-PHI), PRIMEX, Manila. Unpublished report, 33 pp.
150. Yap, W.G., Rabanal, H.R., Llobrera, J.A., 1995. Winning the Future in Fisheries. Mary-Jo Educational Supply, Manila, 132 pp.
151. http://www.fao.org-Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; Fisheries and Aquaculture Department.
152. http://www.sms.si.edu Smithsonian Marine Station; Species Name: Sphaeroma terebrans.
153. http://en.wikipedia.org-Wikipedia; Philippines.
154. http://earthtrends.wri.org-World Resources Institute; EarthTrends, The Environmental Information Portal; Searchable Database.