The tension between communities' cultural rights and global interests: The case of the Ma¯ori Mokomokai

Studies in Intercultural Human Rights

Volumn 4, Issue , 2012, Pages 157-177

  Lenzerini, Federico ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SIENA   (Italy)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84960127794     PISSN: 18769861     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: None     Document Type: Chapter

References (83)

1. See "France stops Maori mummy's return", BBC News, 25 October 2007, available at http:// news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7061724.stm (last visited on 4 July 2010).
2. For a comment on this case, see O. Amiel, "A Maori Head: Public Domain?", IJCP, vol. 15 (2008), p. 317.
3. On the return of human remains from museums more generally, see S. Gallagher, "Museums and the Return of Human Remains: An Equitable Solution?", IJCP, vol. 17 (2010), p. 65.
4. See Skidegate Repatriation & Cultural Committee, "End of Mourning Ceremony", available at http://www.repatriation.ca/Pages/End%20of%20Mourning.html (last visited on 10 December 2010).
5. See also M. Simpson, "The Repatriation of Haida Ancestors", in L.V. Prott (ed.), Witnesses to History - Documents and Writings on the Return of Cultural Objects (UNESCO, 2009), p. 260.
6. See "Maori heads will return to NZ", BBC News, 24 June 2004, available at http://news.bbc .co.uk/2/hi/uk-news/scotland/3834501.stm (last visited on 4 July 2010).
7. See "Peaceful end for Maori head row", BBC News, 11 January 2005, available at http://news .bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk-news/scotland/4162581.stm (last visited on 4 July 2010).
8. See "Maori artefacts will be returned", BBC News, 18 July 2006, available at http://news.bbc .co.uk/2/hi/uk-news/scotland/5189490.stm (last visited on 4 July 2010).
9. See "France votes down 'barbaric' trade in mummified heads", heraldsun.com.au, 30 June 2009, available at http://www.heraldsun.com.au/news/world/france-votes-down-barbarictrade- in-mummified-heads/story-e6frf7lf-1225744021923 (last visited on 4 July 2010). See also below n. 15.
10. For cases of the return to indigenous communities of objects of special spiritual significance different from human remains see, e.g., the case of the Ahayu:da (twin gods or war gods), 69 of which, representing all known copies located in the United States, were returned to the Zuni Pueblo of New Mexico by 1992 from 37 different sources; see W.L. Merrill, E.J. Ladd, T.J. Ferguson, "The Return of the Ahayu:da: Lessons for Repatriation from Zuni Pueblo and the Smithsonian Institute", Current Anthropology, vol. 34 (1993), p. 523;
11. E. Bergman, "Reversing the Flow of Traffic in the Market of Cultural Property", Abya Yala News online, 6 September 2010, available at http://saiic.nativeweb.org/ayn/repat.html (last visited on 10 December 2010);
12. T.J. Ferguson, "Repatriation of Ahayu:Da: 20 Years Later", Museum Anthropology, vol. 33 (2010), p. 194.
13. See S. Bloch, "France to return Maori heads to NZ", theage.com.au, 28 June 2009, available at http://news.theage.com.au/breaking-news-world/france-to-return-maori-heads-to-nz- 20090628-d0y8.htm (last visited on 4 July 2010).
14. See Loi no 2010-501 du 18 mai 2010 visant à autoriser la restitution par la France des têtes maories à la Nouvelle-Zélande et relative à la gestion des collections, available at http:// www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?cidTexte=JORFTEXT000022227321&dateTexte= (last visited on 10 December 2010).
15. See "First Repatriation of Maori Remains from Rouen Museum, France", Scoop Independent News, 9 May 2011, available at http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/CU1105/S00143/first-repatriationof- maori-remains-from-rouen-museum.htm (last visited on 12 June 2011).
16. The four institutions concerned are: Lund University, Lund, Sweden (29 April 2011);
17. Frankfurt Museum of World Cultures, Frankfurt, Germany (3 May 2011);
18. Senckenburg Museum of Natural History, Frankfurt, Germany (3 May 2011);
19. Oslo University, Oslo, Norway (5 May 2011).
20. See M. Blackburn, Tattoos from Paradise: Traditional Polynesian Patterns (Schiffer Publishing Ltd, 1999), p. 15.
21. A. Gell, Wrapping in Images: Tattooing in Polynesia (Oxford University Press, 1993), p. 246 ff.;
22. C. Palmer and M.L. Tano, Mokomokai: Commercialization and Desacralization (International Institute for Indigenous Resource Management, Denver, 2004), available at http://www.iiirm.org/publications/Articles%20Reports%20Papers/Genetics %20and%20Biotechnology/mokomokai.pdf (last visited on 3 July 2010), p. 1.
23. N. Te Awekotuku (with L. Waimarie Nikora), Mau Moko. The World of Maori Tattoo (Penguin, 2007).
24. See Gell (above n. 17), p. 251; Palmer and Tano (above n. 17), p. 2.
25. See Palmer and Tano (above n. 17), p. 1.
26. See R. Neich, Painted Histories: Early Maori Figurative Painting (Auckland University Press, 1993), p. 20.
27. See T. Rangi Hiroa, The Coming of the Maori (Maori Purposes Fund Board, 1982), p. 299;
28. H.G. Robley, Moko; or, Maori Tattooing (Chapman and Hall, 1896, reprint 2011 by Kessinger), p. 100;
29. Palmer and Tano (above n. 17), p. 2.
30. See S. Gilbert, Tattoo History: An Anthology of Historical Records of Tattooing throughout the World (2000), p. 67
31. See Gell (above n. 17), pp. 251 ff.
32. See Palmer and Tano (above n. 17), p. 3.
33. See Robley (above n. 22), p. 136.
34. See Palmer and Tano (above n. 17), p. 3.
35. See Robley (above n. 22), p. 138.
36. See Palmer and Tano (above n. 17), pp. 4 ff.
37. See Robley (above n. 22), pp. 167 ff.
38. See Palmer and Tano (above n. 17), p. 5.
39. See T. Walker, Robley: Te Ropere 1840 - 1930 (University of Auckland, 1985).
40. See also "Digitized version of Moko or Maori Tatooing by Horatio Gordon Robley" (New Zealand Electronic Text Centre, Wellington, 2007).
41. See, e.g., Gilbert (above n. 23), p. 67
42. Palmer and Tano (above n. 17), p. 7.
43. Available at http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/files/12762/11295421661mexico-en.pdf/ mexico-en.pdf (last visited on 4 July 2010).
44. Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage (Paris, 17 October 2003), 2368 UNTS 3;
45. hereinafter "ICH Convention". As of 28 December 2011, the Convention had been ratified by 142 States (see http://portal.unesco.org/la/convention .asp?language=E&KO=17116).
46. Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions (Paris, 20 October 2005), 2440 UNTS 311;
47. "Cultural Diversity Convention". As of 12 January 2012, 120 States were parties to this Convention (see http://portal.unesco.org/la/ convention.asp?KO=31038&language=E).
48. Article 1, ICH Convention (above n. 39).
49. Cultural Diversity Convention (above n. 40), Preamble, para. 7.
50. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) (GA Res. 2200A (XXI), 16 December 1966), 999 UNTS 171.
51. See General Comment No. 23: The rights of minorities (Article 27 ICCPR), 8 April 1994, UN doc. CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.5.
52. see, inter alia, Ivan Kitok v. Sweden (Comm. No. 197/1985), Views of 27 July 1988;
53. Bernard Ominayak and the Lubicon Lake Band v. Canada (Comm. No. 167/1984), Views of 26 March 1990;
54. Ilmari Länsam et al. V. Finland (No. 1) (Comm. No. 511/1992), Views of 14 October 1993;
55. Hopu and Bessert v. France (Comm. No. 549/1993), Views of 29 July 1997;
56. Apirana Mahuika et al. V. New Zealand (Comm. No. 547/1993), Views of 27 October 2000.
57. International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (New York, 7 March 1966), 660 UNTS 195.
58. See General Recommendation XXIII on the rights of indigenous peoples, 18 August 1997, available at http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/0/73984290dfea022b802565160056fe1c?Open document (last visited on 4 July 2010), para. 4(e).
59. Convention on the Rights of the Child (GA Res. 44/25, 20 November 1989), 1577 UNTS 3.
60. As of 12 June 2011, the Convention has been ratified by all UN member States except two (see http:// treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg-no=IV-11&chapter=4&lang=en).
61. See General Comment No. 11, Indigenous children and their rights under the Convention, UN doc. CRC/C/GC/11, 12 February 2009, para. 18 (emphasis in original).
62. International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) (New York, 16 December 1966); 993 UNTS 3.
63. See General Comment No. 21, Right of everyone to take part in cultural life (Article 15, para. 1 (a), International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights), UN doc. E/C.12/GC/21, 21 December 2009, para. 16(e). For discussion, see Pineschi, chapter 2 in this volume.
64. General Comment No. 21 (above n. 52), para. 36.
65. Case of the Moiwana Community v. Suriname (Preliminary Objections, Merits, Reparations and Costs), IACtHR, Judgment of 15 June 2005, Series C No. 124.
66. American Convention on Human Rights (San José, 21 November 1969); OAS TS No. 36, 1144 UNTS 123.
67. See Moiwana Community v. Suriname (above n. 55), para. 86(9).
68. African Charter of Human and Peoples' Rights (Banjul, 27 June 1981), OAU doc. CAB/LEG/67/3 rev.3, ILM, vol. 21 (1982), p. 58.
69. See Centre for Minority Rights Development (Kenya) and Minority Rights Group International on behalf of Endorois Welfare Council v. Kenya (Comm. No. 276/2003), 4 February 2010, available at http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/RWFiles2010.nsf/FilesByRWDocUnidFilename/SMAR- 82H3UE-full-report.pdf/$File/full-report.pdf (last visited on 5 July 2010), para. 241.
70. GA Res. 61/295 of 13 September 2007.
71. UNIDROIT Convention on Stolen or Illegally Exported Cultural Objects (Rome, 24 June 1995), ILM, vol. 34 (1995), p. 1322.
72. See, in particular, Article 10 of the UNIDROIT Convention on Stolen or Illegally Exported Cultural Objects (above n. 64).
73. F. Francioni, "Il contributo del diritto internazionale alla protezione del patrimonio culturale", in Alberico Gentili. La salvaguardia dei beni culturali nel diritto internazionale (Giuffré, 2008), p. 316, at p. 336.
74. See, on this issue, D. Shelton, "Reparations for Indigenous Peoples: The Present Value of Past Wrongs", in F. Lenzerini (ed.), Reparations for Indigenous Peoples: International and Comparative Perspectives (Oxford University Press, 2008), p. 47, at pp. 62 ff.
75. Generally on this issue see also A.F. Vrdoljak, "Reparations for Cultural Loss", in Lenzerini (ed.) (above n. 69), p. 197
76. See, e.g., the second and third preambular paragraphs of the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict (The Hague, 14 May 1954), 249 UNTS 240
77. UNESCO Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (Paris, 16 November 1972), 1037 UNTS 151
78. See, e.g., Ilmari Länsam v. Finland (above n. 46), para. 9.4.
79. See Social and Economic Rights Action Center and the Center for Economic and Social Rights v. Nigeria (Comm. No. 155/96) (2001), available at http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/africa/ comcases/155-96.html (last visited on 9 July 2010).
80. See López Ostra v. Spain (App. No. 16798/90), ECtHR, Judgment of 9 December 1994, para. 58.
81. See Beyeler v. Italy (App. No. 33202/96), ECtHR, Judgment of 5 January 2000, para. 113.
82. Protocol to the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (Protocol No. 1) (Paris, 20 March 1952), CETS No. 9.
83. See above, section 3.