메뉴 건너뛰기




Volumn 7, Issue 2, 2016, Pages 171-183

Linking demography with drivers: Climate and competition

Author keywords

Climate; Competition; Demography; Drivers; Estimation; Functional data analysis; Machine learning; Splines

Indexed keywords


EID: 84958956336     PISSN: None     EISSN: 2041210X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/2041-210X.12486     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (55)

References (74)
  • 1
    • 77954795354 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Coexistence of perennial plants: an embarrassment of niches
    • Adler, P.B., Ellner, S.P. & Levine, J.M. (2010) Coexistence of perennial plants: an embarrassment of niches. Ecology Letters, 13, 1019-1029.
    • (2010) Ecology Letters , vol.13 , pp. 1019-1029
    • Adler, P.B.1    Ellner, S.P.2    Levine, J.M.3
  • 2
    • 84959002650 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • climwin: Climate Window Analysis
    • R package version 0.0.1.
    • Bailey, L.D. & van de Pol, M. (2015) climwin: Climate Window Analysis. R package version 0.0.1.
    • (2015)
    • Bailey, L.D.1    van de Pol, M.2
  • 3
    • 84907089042 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • minqa: Derivative-free optimization algorithms by quadratic approximation
    • R package version 1.2.4.
    • Bates, D., Mullen, K.M., Nash, J.C. & Varadhan, R. (2014) minqa: Derivative-free optimization algorithms by quadratic approximation. R package version 1.2.4.
    • (2014)
    • Bates, D.1    Mullen, K.M.2    Nash, J.C.3    Varadhan, R.4
  • 4
    • 82255196005 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Square-root lasso: pivotal recovery of sparse signals via conic programming
    • Belloni, A., Chernozhukov, V. & Wang, L. (2011) Square-root lasso: pivotal recovery of sparse signals via conic programming. Biometrika, 98, 791-806.
    • (2011) Biometrika , vol.98 , pp. 791-806
    • Belloni, A.1    Chernozhukov, V.2    Wang, L.3
  • 5
    • 0035958646 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Noisy clockwork: time series analysis of population fluctuations in animals
    • Bjornstad, O. & Grenfell, B. (2001) Noisy clockwork: time series analysis of population fluctuations in animals. Science, 293, 638-643.
    • (2001) Science , vol.293 , pp. 638-643
    • Bjornstad, O.1    Grenfell, B.2
  • 6
    • 12244271377 scopus 로고
    • Seasonal development and yield of native plants on the upper snake river plains and their relation to certain climatic factors
    • Tech. Rep. Technical Bulletin No. 1190, USDA, Washington, DC.
    • Blaisdell, J.P. (1958) Seasonal development and yield of native plants on the upper snake river plains and their relation to certain climatic factors. Tech. Rep. Technical Bulletin No. 1190, USDA, Washington, DC.
    • (1958)
    • Blaisdell, J.P.1
  • 7
    • 0035478854 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Random forests
    • Breiman, L. (2001) Random forests. Machine Learning, 45, 5-32.
    • (2001) Machine Learning , vol.45 , pp. 5-32
    • Breiman, L.1
  • 8
    • 49749099233 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Estimating a predator-prey dynamical model with the parameter cascades method
    • Cao, J., Fussmann, G.F. & Ramsay, J.O. (2008) Estimating a predator-prey dynamical model with the parameter cascades method. Biometrics, 64, 959-967.
    • (2008) Biometrics , vol.64 , pp. 959-967
    • Cao, J.1    Fussmann, G.F.2    Ramsay, J.O.3
  • 9
    • 0001668788 scopus 로고
    • Environmental variability promotes coexistence in lottery competitive systems
    • Chesson, P. & Warner, R.R. (1981) Environmental variability promotes coexistence in lottery competitive systems. The American Naturalist, 117, 923-943.
    • (1981) The American Naturalist , vol.117 , pp. 923-943
    • Chesson, P.1    Warner, R.R.2
  • 10
    • 79953292596 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Climate change vulnerability of forest biodiversity: climate and competition tracking of demographic rates
    • Clark, J.S., Bell, D.M., Hersh, M.H. & Nichols, L. (2011) Climate change vulnerability of forest biodiversity: climate and competition tracking of demographic rates. Global Change Biology, 17, 1834-1849.
    • (2011) Global Change Biology , vol.17 , pp. 1834-1849
    • Clark, J.S.1    Bell, D.M.2    Hersh, M.H.3    Nichols, L.4
  • 11
    • 0013942559 scopus 로고
    • Optimizing reproduction in a randomly varying environment
    • Cohen, D. (1966) Optimizing reproduction in a randomly varying environment. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 12, 119-129.
    • (1966) Journal of Theoretical Biology , vol.12 , pp. 119-129
    • Cohen, D.1
  • 13
    • 84958959743 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Contrasting effects of spatial heterogeneity and environmental stochasticity on population dynamics of a perennial wildflower
    • Crone, E. (2016) Contrasting effects of spatial heterogeneity and environmental stochasticity on population dynamics of a perennial wildflower. Journal of Ecology, 104, 281-291.
    • (2016) Journal of Ecology , vol.104 , pp. 281-291
    • Crone, E.1
  • 15
    • 77954245731 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Alternative regression methods are not considered in Murtaugh 2009 or by ecologists in general
    • Dahlgren, J.P. (2010) Alternative regression methods are not considered in Murtaugh 2009 or by ecologists in general. Ecology Letters, 13, E7-E9.
    • (2010) Ecology Letters , vol.13 , pp. E7-E9
    • Dahlgren, J.P.1
  • 16
    • 79960638857 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Incorporating environmental change over succession in an integral projection model of population dynamics of a forest herb
    • Dahlgren, J.P. & Ehrlén, J. (2011) Incorporating environmental change over succession in an integral projection model of population dynamics of a forest herb. Oikos, 120, 1183-1190.
    • (2011) Oikos , vol.120 , pp. 1183-1190
    • Dahlgren, J.P.1    Ehrlén, J.2
  • 17
    • 79955887506 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Nonlinear relationships between vital rates and state variables in demographic models
    • Dahlgren, J.P., García, M.B. & Ehrlén, J. (2011) Nonlinear relationships between vital rates and state variables in demographic models. Ecology, 92, 1181-1187.
    • (2011) Ecology , vol.92 , pp. 1181-1187
    • Dahlgren, J.P.1    García, M.B.2    Ehrlén, J.3
  • 18
    • 79955532537 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Climate influences the demography of three dominant sagebrush steppe plants
    • Dalgleish, H.J., Koons, D.N., Hooten, M.B., Moffet, C.A. & Adler, P.B. (2011) Climate influences the demography of three dominant sagebrush steppe plants. Ecology, 92, 75-85.
    • (2011) Ecology , vol.92 , pp. 75-85
    • Dalgleish, H.J.1    Koons, D.N.2    Hooten, M.B.3    Moffet, C.A.4    Adler, P.B.5
  • 19
    • 77958588674 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Demographic compensation and tipping points in climate-induced range shifts
    • Doak, D.F. & Morris, W.F. (2010) Demographic compensation and tipping points in climate-induced range shifts. Nature, 467, 959-962.
    • (2010) Nature , vol.467 , pp. 959-962
    • Doak, D.F.1    Morris, W.F.2
  • 21
    • 84958986763 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Advancing environmentally explicit structured population models of plants
    • Ehrlen, J., Morris, W., von Euler, T. & Dahlgren, J. (2016) Advancing environmentally explicit structured population models of plants. Journal of Ecology, 104, 292-305.
    • (2016) Journal of Ecology , vol.104 , pp. 292-305
    • Ehrlen, J.1    Morris, W.2    von Euler, T.3    Dahlgren, J.4
  • 22
    • 84922650858 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Predicting changes in the distribution and abundance of species under environmental change
    • Ehrlén, J. & Morris, W.F. (2015) Predicting changes in the distribution and abundance of species under environmental change. Ecology Letters, 18, 304-314.
    • (2015) Ecology Letters , vol.18 , pp. 304-314
    • Ehrlén, J.1    Morris, W.F.2
  • 24
    • 0023516395 scopus 로고
    • Alternate plant life history strategies and coexistence in randomly varying environments
    • Ellner, S. (1987) Alternate plant life history strategies and coexistence in randomly varying environments. Vegetatio, 69, 199-208.
    • (1987) Vegetatio , vol.69 , pp. 199-208
    • Ellner, S.1
  • 26
    • 77950537175 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Regularization paths for generalized linear models via coordinate descent
    • Friedman, J., Hastie, T. & Tibshirani, R. (2010) Regularization paths for generalized linear models via coordinate descent. Journal of Statistical Software, 33, 1-22.
    • (2010) Journal of Statistical Software , vol.33 , pp. 1-22
    • Friedman, J.1    Hastie, T.2    Tibshirani, R.3
  • 27
    • 0023471779 scopus 로고
    • Neighborhood competition in an old-field plant community
    • Goldberg, D.E. (1987) Neighborhood competition in an old-field plant community. Ecology, 68, 1211-1223.
    • (1987) Ecology , vol.68 , pp. 1211-1223
    • Goldberg, D.E.1
  • 29
    • 84934990815 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Sequential selection procedures and false discovery rate control
    • arXiv preprint arXiv:1309.5352.
    • G'Sell, M.G., Wager, S., Chouldechova, A. & Tibshirani, R. (2013) Sequential selection procedures and false discovery rate control. arXiv preprint arXiv:1309.5352.
    • (2013)
    • G'Sell, M.G.1    Wager, S.2    Chouldechova, A.3    Tibshirani, R.4
  • 30
    • 0002663872 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Overlapping generations: the storage effect and the maintenance of biotic diversity
    • (eds O.E. Rhodes, R.K. Chesser & M.H. Smith). University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
    • Hairston, N., Ellner, S. & Kearns, C. (1996) Overlapping generations: the storage effect and the maintenance of biotic diversity. Population Dynamics in Ecological Space and Time (eds O.E. Rhodes, R.K. Chesser & M.H. Smith ), pp. 109-145. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
    • (1996) Population Dynamics in Ecological Space and Time , pp. 109-145
    • Hairston, N.1    Ellner, S.2    Kearns, C.3
  • 31
    • 84958961921 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Truncated linear models for functional data
    • arXiv preprint arXiv:1406.7732.
    • Hall, P. & Hooker, G. (2014) Truncated linear models for functional data. arXiv preprint arXiv:1406.7732.
    • (2014)
    • Hall, P.1    Hooker, G.2
  • 33
    • 35348935022 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Generalized functional ANOVA diagnostics for high dimensional functions of dependent variables
    • Hooker, G. (2007) Generalized functional ANOVA diagnostics for high dimensional functions of dependent variables. Journal of Computational and Graphical Statistics, 16, 709-732.
    • (2007) Journal of Computational and Graphical Statistics , vol.16 , pp. 709-732
    • Hooker, G.1
  • 34
    • 0000123207 scopus 로고
    • The paradox of the plankton
    • Hutchinson, G. (1961) The paradox of the plankton. The American Naturalist, 95, 137-145.
    • (1961) The American Naturalist , vol.95 , pp. 137-145
    • Hutchinson, G.1
  • 35
    • 69049090897 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Functional linear regression that's interpretable
    • James, G.M., Wang, J. & Zhu, J. (2009) Functional linear regression that's interpretable. The Annals of Statistics, 2083-2108.
    • (2009) The Annals of Statistics , pp. 2083-2108
    • James, G.M.1    Wang, J.2    Zhu, J.3
  • 36
    • 77954001835 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Population dynamics of an Arctiid caterpillar-tachinid parasitoid system using state-space models
    • Karban, R. & de Valpine, P. (2010) Population dynamics of an Arctiid caterpillar-tachinid parasitoid system using state-space models. Journal of Animal Ecology, 79, 650-661.
    • (2010) Journal of Animal Ecology , vol.79 , pp. 650-661
    • Karban, R.1    de Valpine, P.2
  • 38
    • 56649086767 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Evolution of delayed reproduction in uncertain environments: a life-history perspective
    • Koons, D., Metcalf, C. & Tuljapurkar, S. (2008) Evolution of delayed reproduction in uncertain environments: a life-history perspective. The American Naturalist, 172, 797-805.
    • (2008) The American Naturalist , vol.172 , pp. 797-805
    • Koons, D.1    Metcalf, C.2    Tuljapurkar, S.3
  • 39
    • 67649519423 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Is life-history buffering or lability adaptive in stochastic environments?
    • Koons, D.N., Pavard, S., Baudisch, A. & Metcalf, C.J.E. (2009) Is life-history buffering or lability adaptive in stochastic environments? Oikos, 18, 972-980.
    • (2009) Oikos , vol.18 , pp. 972-980
    • Koons, D.N.1    Pavard, S.2    Baudisch, A.3    Metcalf, C.J.E.4
  • 41
    • 49649128836 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Demography of perennial grassland plants: survival life expectancy and life span
    • Lauenroth, W.K. & Adler, P.B. (2008) Demography of perennial grassland plants: survival life expectancy and life span. African Journal of Ecology, 96, 1023-1032.
    • (2008) African Journal of Ecology , vol.96 , pp. 1023-1032
    • Lauenroth, W.K.1    Adler, P.B.2
  • 42
    • 84960116972 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Don't fall for tuning parameters: Tuning-free variable selection in high dimensions with the TREX
    • January 25-30, 2015, Austin, TX, USA.
    • Lederer, J. & Müller, C. (2015) Don't fall for tuning parameters: Tuning-free variable selection in high dimensions with the TREX. Proceedings of the Twenty-Ninth AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence, January 25-30, 2015, Austin, TX, USA, pp. 2729-2735.
    • (2015) Proceedings of the Twenty-Ninth AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence , pp. 2729-2735
    • Lederer, J.1    Müller, C.2
  • 44
    • 0001706431 scopus 로고
    • Interference in dune annuals: spatial pattern and neighbourhood effects
    • Mack, R.N. & Harper, J.L. (1977) Interference in dune annuals: spatial pattern and neighbourhood effects. African Journal of Ecology, 65, 345-363.
    • (1977) African Journal of Ecology , vol.65 , pp. 345-363
    • Mack, R.N.1    Harper, J.L.2
  • 47
    • 84905649685 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Temperature effects on long-term population dynamics in a parasitoid-host system
    • Meisner, M.H., Harmon, J.P. & Ives, A.R. (2014) Temperature effects on long-term population dynamics in a parasitoid-host system. Ecological Monographs, 84, 457-476.
    • (2014) Ecological Monographs , vol.84 , pp. 457-476
    • Meisner, M.H.1    Harmon, J.P.2    Ives, A.R.3
  • 48
    • 84959002652 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Detecting feature interactions in bagged trees and random forests
    • arXiv preprint arXiv:1406.1845.
    • Mentch, L. & Hooker, G. (2014a) Detecting feature interactions in bagged trees and random forests. arXiv preprint arXiv:1406.1845.
    • (2014)
    • Mentch, L.1    Hooker, G.2
  • 49
    • 84933545784 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ensemble trees and CLTs: statistical inference for supervised learning
    • arXiv preprint arXiv:1404.6473.
    • Mentch, L. & Hooker, G. (2014b) Ensemble trees and CLTs: statistical inference for supervised learning. arXiv preprint arXiv:1404.6473.
    • (2014)
    • Mentch, L.1    Hooker, G.2
  • 50
    • 70149118989 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Fitting models of multiple hypotheses to partial population data: investigating the causes of cycles in Red Grouse
    • New, L.F., Matthiopoulos, J., Redpath, S. & Buckland, S.T. (2009) Fitting models of multiple hypotheses to partial population data: investigating the causes of cycles in Red Grouse. The American Naturalist, 174, 399-412.
    • (2009) The American Naturalist , vol.174 , pp. 399-412
    • New, L.F.1    Matthiopoulos, J.2    Redpath, S.3    Buckland, S.T.4
  • 51
    • 0023517476 scopus 로고
    • Neighborhood interference among velvet leaf, abutilon theophrasti, and pigweed, amaranthus retroflexus
    • Pacala, S.W. & Silander, J. (1987) Neighborhood interference among velvet leaf, abutilon theophrasti, and pigweed, amaranthus retroflexus. Oikos, 48, 217-224.
    • (1987) Oikos , vol.48 , pp. 217-224
    • Pacala, S.W.1    Silander, J.2
  • 52
    • 0031892845 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Patterns of variance in stage-structured populations: Evolutionary predictions and ecological implications
    • Pfister, C. (1998) Patterns of variance in stage-structured populations: Evolutionary predictions and ecological implications. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 95, 213-218.
    • (1998) Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA , vol.95 , pp. 213-218
    • Pfister, C.1
  • 53
    • 67650689575 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Population dynamics of two sympatric rodents in a variable environment: rainfall, resource availability, and predation
    • Previtali, M.A., Lima, M., Meserve, P.L., Kelt, D.A. & Gutierrez, J.R. (2009) Population dynamics of two sympatric rodents in a variable environment: rainfall, resource availability, and predation. Ecology, 90, 1996-2006.
    • (2009) Ecology , vol.90 , pp. 1996-2006
    • Previtali, M.A.1    Lima, M.2    Meserve, P.L.3    Kelt, D.A.4    Gutierrez, J.R.5
  • 56
    • 0029667545 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Quantifying the impact of competition and spatial heterogeneity on the structure and dynamics of a four-species guild of winter annuals
    • Rees, M., Grubb, P.J. & Kelly, D. (1996) Quantifying the impact of competition and spatial heterogeneity on the structure and dynamics of a four-species guild of winter annuals. The American Naturalist, 147, 1-32.
    • (1996) The American Naturalist , vol.147 , pp. 1-32
    • Rees, M.1    Grubb, P.J.2    Kelly, D.3
  • 57
    • 0033946940 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Avian life history variation and contribution of demographic traits to the population growth rate
    • Sæther, B.E. & Bakke, Ø. (2000) Avian life history variation and contribution of demographic traits to the population growth rate. Ecology, 81, 642-653.
    • (2000) Ecology , vol.81 , pp. 642-653
    • Sæther, B.E.1    Bakke, Ø.2
  • 59
    • 33645080176 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Quantification of neighbourhood-dependent plant growth by bayesian hierarchical modelling
    • Schneider, M., Law, R. & Illian, J. (2006) Quantification of neighbourhood-dependent plant growth by bayesian hierarchical modelling. African Journal of Ecology, 94, 310-321.
    • (2006) African Journal of Ecology , vol.94 , pp. 310-321
    • Schneider, M.1    Law, R.2    Illian, J.3
  • 60
    • 0001151494 scopus 로고
    • What is bet-hedging?
    • (eds P.H. Harvey, L. Partridge), Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
    • Seger, J. & Brockman, H.J. (1987) What is bet-hedging? Oxford Surveys in Evolutionary Biology, vol. 4 (eds P.H. Harvey, L. Partridge ), pp. 182-211, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
    • (1987) Oxford Surveys in Evolutionary Biology , vol.4 , pp. 182-211
    • Seger, J.1    Brockman, H.J.2
  • 61
    • 80052585238 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Population dynamics of three songbird species in a nestbox population in Central Europe show effects of density, climate and competitive interactions
    • Smallegange, I.M., van der Meer, J. & Fiedler, W. (2011) Population dynamics of three songbird species in a nestbox population in Central Europe show effects of density, climate and competitive interactions. Ibis, 153, 806-817.
    • (2011) Ibis , vol.153 , pp. 806-817
    • Smallegange, I.M.1    van der Meer, J.2    Fiedler, W.3
  • 62
    • 33847096395 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Bias in random forest variable importance measures: illustrations sources and a solution
    • Strobl, C., Boulesteix, A.L., Zeileis, A. & Hothorn, T. (2007) Bias in random forest variable importance measures: illustrations sources and a solution. BMC Bioinformatics, 8, 25.
    • (2007) BMC Bioinformatics , vol.8 , pp. 25
    • Strobl, C.1    Boulesteix, A.L.2    Zeileis, A.3    Hothorn, T.4
  • 65
    • 0942300454 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Seed mass and the competition/colonization trade-off: competitive interactions and spatial patterns in a guild of annual plants
    • Turnbull, L., Coomes, D., Hector, A. & Rees, M. (2004) Seed mass and the competition/colonization trade-off: competitive interactions and spatial patterns in a guild of annual plants. African Journal of Ecology, 92, 97-109.
    • (2004) African Journal of Ecology , vol.92 , pp. 97-109
    • Turnbull, L.1    Coomes, D.2    Hector, A.3    Rees, M.4
  • 66
    • 79955447221 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Identifying the critical climatic time window that affects trait expression
    • van de Pol, M. & Cockburn, A. (2011) Identifying the critical climatic time window that affects trait expression. The American Naturalist, 177, 698-707.
    • (2011) The American Naturalist , vol.177 , pp. 698-707
    • van de Pol, M.1    Cockburn, A.2
  • 67
    • 84933545786 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Asymptotic theory for random forests
    • arXiv preprint arXiv:1405.0352.
    • Wager, S. (2014) Asymptotic theory for random forests. arXiv preprint arXiv:1405.0352.
    • (2014)
    • Wager, S.1
  • 71
    • 0035125277 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Partially specified ecological models
    • Wood, S.N. (2001) Partially specified ecological models. Ecological Monographs, 71, 1-25.
    • (2001) Ecological Monographs , vol.71 , pp. 1-25
    • Wood, S.N.1
  • 72
    • 78650862532 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Fast stable restricted maximum likelihood and marginal likelihood estimation of semiparametric generalized linear models
    • Wood, S.N. (2011) Fast stable restricted maximum likelihood and marginal likelihood estimation of semiparametric generalized linear models. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society B, 73, 3-36.
    • (2011) Journal of the Royal Statistical Society B , vol.73 , pp. 3-36
    • Wood, S.N.1
  • 73
    • 63249108010 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Endogenous and exogenous factors controlling temporal abundance patterns of tropical mosquitoes
    • Yang, G.J., Brook, B.W., Whelan, P.I., Cleland, S. & Bradshaw, C.J.A. (2008) Endogenous and exogenous factors controlling temporal abundance patterns of tropical mosquitoes. Ecological Applications, 18, 2028-2040.
    • (2008) Ecological Applications , vol.18 , pp. 2028-2040
    • Yang, G.J.1    Brook, B.W.2    Whelan, P.I.3    Cleland, S.4    Bradshaw, C.J.A.5
  • 74
    • 84856936142 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Mapped quadrats in sagebrush steppe: long-term data for analyzing demographic rates and plant-plant interactions
    • Zachmann, L., Moffet, C. & Adler, P.B. (2010) Mapped quadrats in sagebrush steppe: long-term data for analyzing demographic rates and plant-plant interactions. Ecology, 91, 3427-3427.
    • (2010) Ecology , vol.91 , pp. 3427-3427
    • Zachmann, L.1    Moffet, C.2    Adler, P.B.3


* 이 정보는 Elsevier사의 SCOPUS DB에서 KISTI가 분석하여 추출한 것입니다.