Why planning does not work: Land use planning and residentś rights in Tanzania

Why Planning Does Not Work: Land Use Planning and Residentś Rights in Tanzania

Volumn , Issue , 2007, Pages 1-346

  Nnkya, Tumsifu Jonas ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 84957780246     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
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References (403)

1. Healey, P. et al., Land Use Planning and the Mediation of Urban Change: The British Planning System in Practice. 1988, p. 11.
2. See Taylor, J.L. and Williams, D.G., Urban Planning Practice in Developing Countries. Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1984.
3. See Devas, N. and Rakodi, C. (eds.), Managing Fast Growing Cities: New Approaches to Urban Planning and Management in the Developing Countries. Longman Group UK Ltd., 1993.
4. Ward, S.V., Planning and Urban Change. Paul Chapman Publishing Ltd., London, 1994.
5. Keeble, L., Principles and Practice of Town and Country Planning. London, 1964.
6. The United Republic of Tanzania, The National Land Policy 1995.
7. In the Land Ordinance Cap. 113 of 1923, unexhausted improvement is defined as anything or any quality permanently to the land directly resulting from the expenditure of capital or labour by an occupier. Occupier means the holders of the right of occupying or using land in accordance with the native law and custom, or any person acting on his behalf and increasing the productive capacity, the utility or the amenity thereof, but does not include the results of ordinary cultivation other than standing crops or growing product.
8. Bracken, I., Urban Planning Methods: Research and Policy Analysis. London, 1981.
9. Healey, P., Whatever Happened to Methodology in Land-use Planning? Ekistics 311, 1985.
10. UN-Habitat, State of the World's Cities 2006/7, The Millennium Development Goals and Sustainability: 30 years of shaping the Habitat Agenda, Earthscan UK and USA, 2006.
11. Healey, P., Development Plans: New Approaches to Making Frameworks for Land-use Regulation. Paper prepared for Journal of European Planning Studies, 1994, p. 27.
12. Ambrose, P., Whatever Happened to Planning? Methuen and Company Ltd., London, 1986, p. 266-267.
13. The United Republic of Tanzania, Second Five Year Plan for Economic and Social Development (1969-1974).
14. Mabogunje, A.L., Urban Planning and the Post-colonial State in Africa: A Research Overview. African Urban Studies Review, Volume 33, No. 2, 1990, pp. 130-131.
15. Graciana, P., Rural-Urban Linkages: The Case of Dodoma Region, Tanzania. Ph.D. Thesis, submitted to the University of Glasgow, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Geography, 1990.
16. Kironde, L., The Evolution of the Dar es Salaam Land Use Structure 1890-1990: The Effects of Land Policy. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Nairobi, 1995.
17. Max, O.J., The Development of Local Government in Tanzania. Dar es Salaam, 1991.
18. Lipiga, A. Evolution of Local Government in Tanzania 1926-1993. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, submitted to the University of Pittsburg, 1993.
19. Nyerere, J.K., quoted in Max, O.J., The Development of Local Government in Tanzania. Dar es Salaam, 1991.
20. Stren, R. and White, R., African Cities in Crisis: Managing Rapid Urban Growth. Westview Press Colorado, 1989.
21. Hayuma, A.M., The Evolution and Operations of Urban Local Government Authorities in Tanzania 1899-1986. Unpublished Occasional Paper No. 9, Ardhi Institute, 1986.
22. Kulaba, S.M., Urban Growth and the Management of Urban Reform, Finance, Services and Housing in Tanzania, 1989, p. 79.
23. United Republic of Tanzania. A Report on the Presidential Commission of Inquiry into Land Matters, 1992, p. 79.
24. Nnkya, T.J. and Kombe, W., Lindi Master Plan. Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts, School of Architecture, Copenhagen, 1984. In the study carried out for the Lindi Master Plan, the authors established that villagization prompted people to move to Lindi Town during the 1970s. Most of the migrants interviewed said that they escaped the harsh administrative conditions in the villages where they were forced into communal cultivation. They claimed that life in the town was far better, because they could obtain all the basic services as well as a ready market for their agricultural produce, while in the village they would have no buyers. These migrants were full-time farmers and cultivated land located outside the town's boundaries.
25. United Republic of Tanzania, Inter census 1968, 1978, and 1988 comparisons show clearly that the highest growth of towns took place between 1968 and 1978. The average urban growth rate between 1957 and 1967 was 6 per cent, between 1967 and 1978 it was 11 per cent, and between 1978 and 1988 it was 8 per cent. The most recent national population census of 2002 indicates that this rate has declined to 4.5 per cent.
26. Maliyamkono, T.L. and Bagachwa, M.S.D., The Second Economy in Tanzania. University Press, Ohio, 1990, pp. 1-2.
27. Moshi Town by then had Town Council status, constituted according to Section 15 Subsection 2 and Section 17 Subsection 2 of the Town and Country Planning Ordinance, a Planning Area and a Planning Preparatory Authority within its area of jurisdiction.
28. Letter, Reference No. TP/R/4/45, dated 10 January 1973. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
29. Minutes of the first meeting held in the regional development director's office, on Moshi master plan preparation, on 22 January 1973. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archives.
30. The United Republic of Tanzania, The Arusha Master Plan. Prepared by PADCO, 1969.
31. Sunday News newspaper, dated 26 August 1973.
32. Letter, dated 25 July 1973, written by the Finnish planner in charge of the preparation of the master plan, to the regional development director, Kilimanjaro region. Source: Kilimanjaro Regional Town Planning Office archive.
33. Minutes of a meeting between the master plan preparers and the representatives of the sub-district at the Moshi master plan presentation held on 6 March 1974. Source: Kilimanjaro Regional Town Planning Office.
34. Minutes of the Moshi sub-district development and planning committee meeting held on 3 March 1974 to discuss the draft Moshi master plan. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
35. Moshi Master Plan 1974 Main Report.
36. Moshi Master Plan Main Report.
37. The principal legislation Town and Country Planning Ordinance Cap. 378 was revised in 1961. Prior to that, a subsidiary regulation on the constitution of joint area planning committees had been added in 1959 and 1960; two more regulations were added in respect of Use Classes and Application for Planning Consent. In 1964 a regulation on Modification of Planning Scheme was added and in 1993 the Use Classes regulation was revised and its groups expanded to accommodate agriculture, conservation of ecologically fragile lands, and preservation of cultural properties and sites.
38. Sections 29-31 of the Town Country Planning Ordinance stipulates that prior to the approval of plans by the minister responsible for planning, it should be deposited for 3 months at a place convenient for all concerned parties to study. On the basis of this, any discontented individual or government can register objection with the minister. The minister may with or without modification approve the plan.
39. Letter dated 22 November 1976, from the regional land development officer to the regional commissioner. Source: Kilimanjaro Regional Town Planning Office.
40. See Healey, P., The Communicative Work of Development Plans. Paper produced for Burchell, B., Mandelbaum, S. and Mazza, L., Planning Theory in the 1990s. CUPR Press, Rutgers, 1992, p. 5.
41. Healey, P., Development Plans: New Approaches to Making Frameworks for Land Use Regulation. Paper produced for Journal of European Planning Studies, 1992, p. 4.
42. Friedmann, J., Toward a Non-Euclidean Mode of Planning. American Planning Association Journal, Autumn, 1993. p. 1.
43. Bryson, J. and Crosby, B., Leadership for the Common Good: Tackling Public Problems in a Shared Power-World. Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1992, p. 63. Bryson and Crosby defines public policy as a "substantive decisions, commitments, and actions made by those who hold or affect government positions of authority as they are interpreted by various stakeholders".
44. McAuslan, P., The Role of Law in Urban Planning. In Devas, N. and Rakodi, C. (eds.), Managing Fast-Growing Cities in Developing Countries: New Approaches to Urban Planning and Management in Developing World. Longman Scientific & Technical, UK, 1993, p. 236.
45. Moshi Town, which by then had Town Council status, constituted, according to Section 15 Subsection 2 and Section 17 Subsection 2 of the Town and Country Planning Ordinance, was a Planning Area and a Planning Preparatory Authority within its area of jurisdiction.
46. Letter, Reference No. CL.20/3/4, dated 28 July 1978. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
47. Letter, Reference No. PM/UA/M.70/1, dated 18 July 1979. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
48. Government Notice No. 117 published on 9 November 1979. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
49. Interview with the former zonal town planning officer for Kilimanjaro region.
50. Minutes of the regional development committee held on 12 May 1978. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
51. A report on boundary disputes, written by the Moshi Town director at the request of the Moshi District party secretary. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
52. A report on briefing meetings held in settlements incorporated into Moshi Town after the boundary extension in 1978, dated 22 October 1979. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
53. Letter, Reference No. PMC/E.100/1/54, dated 2 November 1979, from the principal secretary, Prime Minister's Office to the regional party secretary.
54. Interview with one of the delegates from Longuo village to the delegation sent to see the prime minister on the issue of the boundary extension.
55. Interview with the councilor for Longuo and present mayor of Moshi Municipal Council.
56. Letter, Reference No. A.70/2/85, dated 3 December 1979. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
57. Letter, Reference No. W/AS/T/4017/A/22, dated 27 December 1979. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
58. Letter, Reference No. W/AS/T/4017/A/25, dated 11 March 1980. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
59. Letter, Reference No. TP/R/4/Vol.II/120, dated 19 April 1980. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
60. Letter, Reference No. W/AS/T/4017/A/29, dated 9 May 1980. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
61. Farvacque, C. and MacAuslan, P., Reforming Urban Land Policies and Institutions in Developing Countries. Urban Management Programme policy paper, 1992, p. xvii.
62. Layout Plan or Detailed Planning Scheme as referred in the Tanzanian Town and Country Planning Ordinance shows subdivision of plots, that is, private spaces, public spaces to include roads, footpaths, and other physical infrastructure, open spaces, plots for community facilities, etc. On the basis of which cadastral survey of building plots is done.
63. Two types of villages can be identified in Tanzania: the traditional village, whose settlement pattern was unaffected by the resettlement or villagization programme carried out in most parts of the country from 1973 to 1976; and ujamaa villages, which were established consequent to that programme.
64. Interview with Mzee Macha.
65. Interview with Dr Kiwelu.
66. Interview with Stanley Temba.
67. A group interview with Mzee Temba, Ruben Ringo, Naftali Ringo and Ainea Maro. The Wameeku wa Mfongo was also responsible for the routine maintenance of roads and bridges in their locality.
68. Letter, Reference No. TC/TP/1/37, dated 2 January 1979. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
69. Letter, Reference No. TC/TP/1/37, dated 2 January 1979. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
70. Letter, Reference No. TP/52/KL/3/168, dated 26 December 1978. Source: Regional Town Planning Office archive.
71. Technical Instruction issued by the director of urban planning in 1979 required planners in the local authorities and regions to submit plans to him in Dar es Salaam for his "professional input" before they were presented to the urban planning committee for "political input". Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
72. Letter, Reference No. TP/52/KL/3/168, dated 26 December 1978. Source: Regional Town Planning Office archive.
73. Minutes of urban planning committee meeting held on 6 April 1983. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
74. In the rest of this account, the party branch chairman will be referred to as the Msaranga chairman.
75. Interview with the Msaranga chairman, 1982-1985 and 1990-1994.
76. Interview with the former chairman of Msaranga.
77. Interview with Ruben Ringo.
78. A group interview with Ruben Ringo, Ainea Maro, Mzee Temba, and Naftali Ringo.
79. Interview with Macha, former chairman of Msaranga.
80. Interview with a group of residents Ruben Ringo, Ainea Maro, and Mzee Temba.
81. The broad-acre concept, as applied in Dodoma, entailed allocating large one-hectare plots for mixed uses to include farming. These were located in a green belt to be set up around proposed communities.
82. Interview with the former regional land development officer at the time of preparation of the Msaranga layout plan.
83. Interview with the former chairman of Msaranga.
84. Letter, Reference No. KIK/1/1, dated 19 November 1983.
85. Minutes of villagers' meeting held on 27 October 1983, and interview with Macha, the former chairman of Msaranga.
86. Minutes of villagers' meeting held on 27 October 1983.
87. Interview with one of the surveyors who carried out the survey.
88. Letter from the town director to the district commissioner. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
89. Letter, Reference No. CCM/KK/140/49, dated 11 November 1983. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
90. Section 9(4) of the Local Government (Urban Authorities) Act stipulates that "Where the area of the authority was the area of a district authority, the district authority shall cease to exist and the affairs and operations of all persons and bodies of persons within that area shall be under the jurisdiction of the authority . . . ." 42 Letter, Reference No. MTC/CYO/22 Vol.III/132, dated 14 November 1983. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
91. Land Ordinance Chapter 113 of the Laws of Tanzania.
92. Douglas, F., quoted in Bryson, J.M. and Crosby, B., Leadership for the Common Good: Tackling Public Problems in a Shared Power World. Josey-Bass Publishers, San Fransisco, 1992, p. 3.
93. Mead, M., quoted in Bryson, J. and Crosby, B., Leadership for the Common Good: Tackling Public Problems in a Shared Power. Josey-Bass Publishers, San Fransisco, 1992, p. 121.
94. Letter, Reference No. TC/TP/I/Vol.II/49, dated 15 November 1983. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
95. Letter, Reference No. KIK/1/1, dated 19 November 1983. Source: Msaranga Residents' Committee archive.
96. Letter dated 26 November 1983.
97. Interview with Msaranga chairman.
98. Interview with Dr Jesse Merinyo Maro.
99. Interview with Stanley Temba.
100. Interview with Dr Kiwelu.
101. Letter, Reference No. PMO/UA/6973/39, dated 30 December 1983.
102. Letter, Reference No. 153/2/KVC/84, dated 4 January 1984.
103. Minutes of an emergency meeting held on 5 January 1984, at the former Msaranga primary school, for the residents of Kikarara, Mdawi and Kiboriloni.
104. Minutes of urban planning committee meeting, held on 18 January 1984. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
105. Letter from Msaranga villagers to the prime minister, dated 6 January 1984. Minutes of an emergency meeting held on 5 January 1984, at the former Msaranga primary school, for the residents of Kikarara, Mdawi and Kiboriloni. Source: Msaranga Residents' Committee.
106. Interview with Mzee Peniel Macha, former chairman of Msaranga.
107. Minutes of a village committee meeting held on 25 May 1984.
108. Interview with Macha. In 1982/83, US$ 1.00 was worth about Tsh. 16.
109. Interview with Stanley Temba.
110. Letter, Reference No. MTC/TP/1/VOl.II/91, dated 5 November 1985, written by the head of the council planning department to the town director. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
111. Interview with council planner.
112. Letter, Reference No. MS/T/GEN/225, dated 15 June 1984, from the regional surveyor to the director of urban planning. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
113. Letter, Reference No. TP/R/4/III/39, dated 1 February 1985, from the director of urban planning. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
114. McAuslan, P., The Role of Law in Urban Planning. In Devas, N. and Rakodi, C. (eds.), Managing fast Growing Cities in Developing Countries, New Approaches to Urban Planning and Management in Developing World. Longman Scientific & Technical, UK, 1993, p. 241.
115. Complaint filed by counsel for the plantiff village councils on 7 April 1993. Source: Msaranga Residents' Committee archive.
116. In 1984, Tsh. 16 was equivalent to US$ 1.
117. Letter from the Msaranga residents' committee, 6 June 1984.
118. Letter from the district party chairman to the Msaranga chairman.
119. Letter from the principal secretary, Prime Minister's Office, to the Ministry of Justice. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
120. Court proceedings.
121. Court proceedings filed on 8 October 1984 for Miscellaneous Civil Application No. 59 of 1984: Kikarara Village Council, Msaranga Village Council and Mdawi Village Council versus Moshi Urban Council. Source: The High Court of Tanzania, Arusha.
122. Letter, Reference No. LTC/A/16/MTC/11, dated 8 October 1984. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
123. Minutes of Msaranga political affairs committee.
124. Ruling delivered on 26 October 1984 by the High Court of Tanzania at Arusha. Source: High Court of Tanzania, Arusha.
125. Kant, I. quoted in Flyvbjerg, B., Rationality and Power: Democracy in Practice, The University of Chicago Press, London, 1998, p. 229.
126. Interview with the former chairman of Msaranga.
127. Letter, Reference No. CCM/W.MM/WM/169/6, dated 29 December 1984.
128. Interview with Stanley Temba.
129. Minutes of urban planning committee meeting held on 8 January 1985. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
130. Letter, Reference No. N/324/9/8, dated 20 August 1985. Source: Msaranga party chairman.
131. Written statement of defence by the council planner, presented for filing on 9 March 1985. Source: High Court of Tanzania, Arusha.
132. Letter from Member of Parliament for Moshi rural district, dated 16 September 1985.
133. Court proceedings, 8 October 1985.
134. Letter, Reference No. TC/TP/1/VI/121, dated 4 December 1985.
135. Court proceedings, 5 August 1985.
136. Letter, Reference No. TC/TP/1/IV/144.
137. Letter from the villagers to the President of the United Republic of Tanzania, dated 3 January 1987. Source: Msaranga village archive.
138. The residents' letter referred to Section 24(i) and (ii) of the Constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania which states that people have right to participate in decisions that affect their lives. The Land Ordinance, Chapter 113 of the laws of Tanzania, provides for the compensation of unexhausted improvement only. Land is regarded as having no exchange value, so if it is acquired no compensation is paid for undeveloped land. This law is currently under review, following the adoption of a new land policy which recognizes the value of land.
139. Second letter from the villagers to the President of the United Republic of Tanzania, dated 3 October 1987. Source: Msaranga village archive.
140. Court proceedings, 2 February 1988. Source: High Court of Tanzania, Arusha.
141. Court proceedings, 28 February 1988. Source: High Court of Tanzania, Arusha.
142. According to urban administration guidelines issued by the Prime Ministers' Office in 1980, a municipality is the level next to a city, among other set criteria; for urban local authority to become a municipality should have a population of 80,000 and above.
143. Letter from Msaranga villagers to the president of the United Republic of Tanzania, dated August 1988.
144. Letter from the president of the United Republic of Tanzania to Msaranga residents, dated 8 December 1988.
145. Letter from the residents' committee to the president of the United Republic of Tanzania, dated 14 February 1989.
146. Letter from the municipal valuer to the ten cell leaders, dated 13 March 1989.
147. Letter from the residents to the national party chairman, dated 29 March 1989.
148. Letter from the national chairman to the residents, dated 30 May 1989.
149. Interview with Dr Merinyo Maro.
150. Letter, Reference No. P. 70/2/11/223, dated 11 September 1989, from the regional commissioner to the High Court of Tanzania at Arusha.
151. Letter, Reference No. TLC/A/16/MTC/11, dated 11 December 1989, from counsel for the defence to Moshi municipal council.
152. Court proceedings, 11 January 1990.
153. Court proceedings, 9 March 1990.
154. Letter, Reference No. MM/KLI./TP.4/9/226, dated 15 March 1990.
155. Instruction, dated 2 April 1990, written by the director of urban development to the planning officer in the urban development directorate.
156. Letter, Reference No. TP/K/4/111/114, dated 26 March 1990, from the director of urban development to the regional town planning officer.
157. Court proceedings, 24 July 24 1990.
158. Court proceedings, 18 August 1990.
159. Court proceedings, 14 December 1990. Source: High Court of Tanzania, Arusha.
160. Court proceedings, 15 December 1990. Source: High Court of Tanzania, Arusha.
161. Letter of application, dated 17 January 1991. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
162. Court proceedings, 15 March 1991. Source: High Court of Tanzania at Arusha.
163. Interview with the planners who carried out the planning exercise.
164. Letter, Reference No. MMC/L 20/1 III/135, dated 8 June 1990, from the municipal surveyor to the regional surveyor in charge. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
165. Letter, Reference No. 2050/5/III/130, dated 3 April 1989, written by the director of surveys and mapping to the director of urban planning. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
166. Letter, Reference No. TP/01/271/10, containing Technical Directive No. 1 of 1989 from the director of town planning to the regional town planning officers and all heads of town planning departments in urban councils. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
167. Guidelines for plan preparation, survey, and land allocation, Ministry of Lands, Housing and Urban Development, 1989.
168. Technical Directive No. 1 of 1979 from the director of urban planning to all regional town planning officers in mainland Tanzania.
169. Letter, Reference No. TP/R/4/III/164, dated 13 February 1991.
170. Minutes of the regional land allocation committee meeting held on 9 September 1992.
171. Village Registration Certificate No. KM. KJ. 53, issued on 2 April 1976. Source: Longuo village archive.
172. Village Council Incorporation Certificate No. KM./VC.53, issued on 16 June 1976. Source: Longuo village archive.
173. Report Reference No. MTC/CC/22/14, dated 26 August 1982, written by the Moshi Town director regarding boundary disputes between Moshi Town Council and Longuo, Kariwa and Rau villages. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
174. Source: Moshi Town aerial photographs taken in 1971, 1983, and 1992.
175. House registration exercise carried out to establish sampling frame for the structured survey.
176. Kihamba is a Chagga word for a piece of land which is permanently under the custodianship of a clan or family. Ownership rights are held under customary law.
177. Interview with Joseph Mushi.
178. Interview with Shabani Mfaume of Longuo Kitandu.
179. Interview with Shirima, landowner in Longuo 11 Interview with the councilor for Longuo.
180. Minutes of Longuo ward development committee meeting held on 12 May 1989.
181. Interview with Shirima, Longuo Resident.
182. Interview with the council planners.
183. Letter of application for survey permit submitted to the council by a group of fourteen Longuo residents, dated 15 November 1990.
184. Interview with Akwiline Chuwa, landowner in Longuo.
185. Interview with the land surveyor in charge of the preliminary survey at Longuo.
186. Interview with Manyara.
187. Interview with Francis Zakaria.
188. Interview with Shirima.
189. Interview with planner 2.
190. Interview with Shabani Mfaume, landowner in Longuo.
191. Interview with the councilor for Longuo ward.
192. Interview with Shirima.
193. Interview with Manyara.
194. The decree issued by the court on 24 November 1983 directed Moshi town council, who were the defendant in the legal suit, to stop committing nuisance on Longuo village, as petitioned by the villagers (the plaintiff). Source: High Court at Arusha.
195. Interview with the council planner who prepared the layout plan for Longuo.
196. Interview with the surveyor in charge of the preliminary survey.
197. Interview with the planner who prepared the Longuo plan.
198. Interview with Akwiline Chuwa.
199. Interview with Shabani Mfaume.
200. Interview with Francis Zakaria.
201. Interview with Akwiline Chuwa.
202. Interview with Mr Shirima, a landowner in Longuo.
203. Interview with planner 2.
204. Nietzsche, F., quoted in Flyvbjerg, B., Rationality and Power, Democracy in Practice. The University of Chicago Press, London p. 183.
205. Minute 10/93 of urban planning committee meeting held on 15 March 1993. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
206. Interview with the head of section in the Council Urban Planning Department.
207. Interview with the planner in charge of the Longuo layout plan.
208. Planning brief for Longuo settlement regularization plan.
209. Interview with the surveyor in charge of the preliminary detailed survey.
210. Interview with planner 2 from the Council Planning Department.
211. See Flyvbjerg, B., Power has a Rationality that Rationality Does Not Know. Department of Development and Planning, Aalborg University, Denmark, 1991.
212. See Forester, J., Practical Rationality in Plan-making. In Breheny, M. and Hopper, A. (eds.), Rationality in Planning. Pion, London, 1985, p. 206.
213. Interview with the planner who prepared the plan.
214. Interview with planner 2.
215. Minute 10/93 of urban planning committee meeting held on 26 May 1993. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
216. Interview with Shabani Mfaume.
217. Interview with the council planner in-charge of the Longuo layout plan.
218. Letter, Reference No. MM/KL.1/TP.4/18/Vol.II/28, dated 9 September 1993, addressed to the director of urban development. Source: Regional Town Planning Office archive.
219. Minutes of urban planning committee meeting held on 24 January 1994. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
220. Report by council planner on tasks carried out by the Urban Planning Department, January to March 1994.
221. Interview with the planner in charge of the Longuo layout plan.
222. Interview with the council planner.
223. MacNeil, D., Planning with implementation in view. Third World Planning Review, Volume 7, No. 3, August 1985. MacNeil divides planners into three groups in terms of their response to the discrepancy between theory and practice: blind, cynical and pragmatists. The first is blind of any discrepancy. "Until their eyes are opened they will continue to uncritically engage in the same fruitless activity. . . ." The second group consists of cynics, who are aware that "practice is very different from the theory, and that the plans they prepare will never become a reality". The third category comprises "pragmatists . . . who fully appreciate the realities of the situation, and do their best within the severe constraints imposed upon them to bring about some beneficial changes".
224. Interview with the council planner.
225. Part of an interview with the head of planning section in the Council Planning Department.
226. Weaver, C., Jessop, J. and Das, V., Rationality in The Public Interest: Notes Toward A New Synthesis, in Rationality in Planning. In Breheny, M. and Hopper, A. (eds.), 1985, pp. 145-165.
227. Land Ordinance, Chapter 113 of the Laws of Tanzania.
228. Flyvbjerg, B., Rationality and Power: Democracy in Practice. The University of Chicago Press, London, 1998, p. 228.
229. William Riker quoted in Flyvbjerg, B., Rationality and Power: Democracy in Practice. The University of Chicago Press, London, 1998.
230. Letter from the district land development officer, Reference No. MS/6427/7/JMV of September 1975. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive. Letter from the regional medical officer, Reference No. G2/38/259, dated 26 July 1975, is quoted in the district land development officers letter. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
231. Letter from the zonal town planning officer to the district land development officer, Reference No. TP/4/13/47, dated 22 October 1975.
232. Letter from the district land development officer, Reference No. MS/6427/7/JMV of September 1975. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive. Letter from the regional medical officer, Reference No. G2/38/259, dated 26 July 1975, is quoted in the district land development officers letter. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
233. Before decentralization, such land would be allocated to the ministry of works, which was the custodian of government estates. Saving No. LD/41554/IV/23/GVSC, dated 29 August, referred in Letter, Reference No. CW, 33120/32, dated 1 November 1974. Source: Kilimanjaro Regional Land Development Office archive.
234. Letter from the Kilimanjaro regional land development officer to the regional development director, Reference No. KMS/503/69/JAM, dated 3 November 1975. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
235. Letter from the village chairman to the district commissioner, dated 23 February 1978. Source: Moshi Municipal council archive and an interview with the councilor for Longuo ward.
236. In 1963, the government converted all freehold titles into government leases. As leases would restrain the holders from treating their land as private property as they used to, some freeholders of land, mostly foreigners, abandoned their lands and left the country.
237. Letter from the village chairman to the district commissioner, dated 23 February 1978. Source: Moshi Municipal council archive and an interview with the councilor for Longuo ward 11 Letter from the district commissioner to the village chairman, Reference No. L.20/15/III/135, dated 21 April 1978. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
238. Minutes of an emergency meeting of Mawenzi Hospital administrators, dated 23 January 1991. Source: Ministry of Lands, Housing and Urban Development archive.
239. Letter from the regional development director to the principal secretary, Ministry of Health, Reference No. L.20/20A/III/16, dated 3 April 1991. Source: Kilimanjaro Regional Land Development archive.
240. Letter, Reference No. KMS/50/266/ES, dated 6 April 1991. Source: Kilimanjaro Regional Land Development archive.
241. Minutes of the regional land allocation committee held on 19 August 1993. In this minute it is recorded that the regional medical officer accepted the subdivision of the psychiatric patients and area into residential plots, except for a small area for gardening, etc. Source: Kilimanjaro Regional Land Development Office archive.
242. Letter, Reference No. TC/TP/I/VOL.II/244, dated 9 August 1991. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
243. The Arusha Declaration was adopted in 1967, as a blueprint for socialist transformation in Tanzania. The adoption of this declaration entailed nationalization of the major means of production, including industries, large-scale farms, financial institutions, some buildings, etc. Mechanisms were also instituted to ensure an equitable distribution of income through progressive taxation. To restrain leaders from amassing wealth by using the powers entrusted to them by the people, a leadership code was formulated. In 1992, this code was relaxed, allowing political leaders and senior government officials to start doing the opposite.
244. Interview with the councilor for Longuo.
245. Letter, Reference No. TP/R/4/III/224, dated 23 October 1991. Source: Directorate of Urban Development, Ministry of Lands, Housing and Urban Development.
246. Letter, Reference No. HEL/L/80/338, dated 23 October 1991. Source: Directorate of Urban Development, Ministry of Lands, Housing and Urban Development.
247. Letter, Reference No. HEL/L80/1/339, dated 23 October 1991. Source: Directorate of Urban Development, Ministry of Lands, Housing and Urban Development.
248. Letter, Reference No. L.20/20A/III/186, dated 24 December 1991. Source: Kilimanjaro Regional Land Development Office archive.
249. Memo from the principal secretary to the director of urban development, dated 9 January 1992. Source: Urban Development Directorate, Ministry of Lands, Housing and Urban Development.
250. Letter, Reference No. TP/R/4/III/221, dated 15 January 1992.
251. Memo from the minister to the principal secretary, dated 16 January 1992. Source: Urban Development Directorate, Ministry of Lands, Housing and Urban Development archive.
252. Memo from the principal secretary to the director of urban development, dated 14 January 1992. Source: Urban Development Directorate, Ministry of Lands, Housing and Urban Development.
253. Letter, Reference No. TP/R/4/III/221, dated 15 January 1992.
254. Interview with the Longuo councilor.
255. Interview with the planner in the Regional Office.
256. Letter from the regional town planning officer to the municipal planner.
257. When this area was allocated to the Ministry of Health, it was already within the town boundary.
258. Minutes of the urban planning committee meeting held on 2 March 1992. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
259. Letter, Reference No. MMC/T.20/1/x111/44, dated 27 March 1992. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
260. Fyvbjerg, B., Rationality and Power, Democracy in Practice. The University of Chicago Press, 1998, p. 226.
261. North, C.D., Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance. Cambridge University Press, New York, 1990, p. 58, quoted in Putnum, R., Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Italy, Princeton University Press, 1993, p. 165.
262. Report dated 14 April 1992, written by the director of urban development upon returning to office after a visit to the psychiatric patients' site on 10 March 1992. Source: Directorate of Urban Development, Ministry of Lands, Housing and Urban Development.
263. Minute 6, dated 16 April 1992, from the director of urban development to the principal secretary, Ministry of Lands, Housing and Urban Development. Source: Ministry of Lands, Housing and Urban Development archive.
264. Letter, Reference No. HEH/64/1/15, dated 28 May 1992. Source: Ministry of Lands, Housing and Urban Development archive.
265. Letter, Reference No. TP/01/251, dated 30 July 1992. Source: Moshi Municipal Council archive.
266. John 18-19:6 Holy Bible 1976 edition. University Press Cambridge, p. 133.
267. Minutes of the regional land allocation committee meeting held on 28 April 1993. Source: Kilimanjaro Regional Land Development Office archive.
268. Oysterbay and Mbezi are upper-class housing areas in Dar es Salaam city. A major part of Oysterbay was built by the British colonial masters for their own residence. Mbezi is an expensive middle-and upperclass housing area being developed by individual developers.
269. Minutes of the regional land allocation committee meeting held on 19 August 1996.
270. Interview with a member of the land allocation committee, who requested anonymity.
271. The name Shanty Town has no relation whatsoever to the quality of the present environment, because this is an upper-class neighbourhood for the rich and executives. The name Shanty comes from the few shanties for labourers which existed when this area was occupied by white farmers before independence in 1961.
272. Letter from a resident, dated 17 May 1993. Source: Mfanyakazi, 17 July 1993.
273. Letter, Reference No. NCCR-M/KL/01/vol /F1, dated 6 July 1993, from the chairman of the NCCR, Mageuzi, Kilimanjaro region, to the regional commissioner.
274. Mfanyakazi newspaper No. 11610, Saturday 17 July 1993.
275. 80 Fairy Tales by Hans Christian Andersen Making the Emperor's New Clothes, 1976 pp. 64-67.
276. Mfanyakazi newspaper No. 11611, Monday 21 July 1993.
277. Interview with a member of the regional land allocation committee.
278. Minutes of the land allocation committee meeting held on 19 August 1993. Source: Kilimanjaro Regional Land Development Office archive.
279. Interview with the councilor for Longuo.
280. The Town and Country Planning (Modifications of Planning Schemes) Regulations, 1964 stipulates "where a scheme has been approved by the minister under Sections 31 and 32 of the Ordinance and where the minister is satisfied that it is in the public interest that a planning consent which does not accord with the scheme should be granted, he may authorize the grant of planning consent so long as: (a) it does not conflict with the general intentions of the schemes; (b) it does not involve a substantial departure from the provisions of the scheme and (c) it does not injuriously affect the amenities of the adjoining land".
281. Letter, Reference No. TEXCO/24, dated 7 December 1993, from TEXCO to the Moshi Town director. Source: Moshi Municipal Council.
282. Letter, Reference No. KMSC/7/IV/SF.1/102/ES, dated 9 January 1992. Source: Kilimanjaro Regional Land Development Office.
283. Letter, Reference No. L20/20A/IV/95, dated 9 October 1992. Source: Kilimanjaro Regional Land Development Office.
284. Letter, Reference No. CS/TEXCO/S.2, dated 23 December 1991. Source: Kilimanjaro Regional Land Development Office.
285. Minute No. 22/92 of the regional land allocation committee meeting held on 22 September 1992. Source: Kilimanjaro Regional Land Development Office.
286. Letter, Reference No. L20/20A/IV/95, dated 9 October 1992. Source: Ministry of Lands, Housing and Urban Development archive.
287. Letter, Reference No. KAFL/7/3/93, dated 17 July 1993. Source: Kilimanjaro Regional Land Development Office.
288. Letter, Reference No. LD/105565/10/TGM, dated 9 September 1993. Source: Kilimanjaro Regional Land Development Office.
289. Letter, Reference No. KLD/JJJ/V/76/42/ES, dated September 1993. Source: Kilimanjaro Regional Land Development Office.
290. Councilor for Longuo and the mayor of Moshi municipal council.
291. Letter, Reference No. KAFL/14/11/93, dated 29 November 1993. Source: Regional Land Development Office.
292. Letter, Reference No. MM/KL.1/P7/4/11/10, dated 3 December 1993. Source: Kilimanjaro Regional Town Planning Office.
293. Letter, Reference No. KLD/JJJ/V/76/51, dated 28 December 1995, from the Regional Land Development Officer to the Regional Town Panning Officer.
294. Letter, Reference No. CS/TEXCO/24, dated 7 December 1994. Source: Moshi Municipal Council.
295. Letter, Reference No. MM/KL.1/II/12, dated 8 February 1994. Source: Regional Land Development Office.
296. Letter, Reference No. L.20/4/III/117, dated 18 March 1994. Source: Regional Land Development Office.
297. Letter, Reference No. KLD/JJJ/V/76/6/ES, dated 24 March 1994. Source: Regional Land Development Office.
298. Letter without Reference No., dated 28 March 1994. Source: Regional Land Development Office.
299. Letter of land application from the developer, Reference No. KAFL/5/3/94, dated 28 March 1994.
300. Councilor for Longuo and mayor of the Moshi municipal council.
301. Minutes of urban planning committee meeting held on 30 March 1994. Source: Moshi Municipal Council.
302. Letter, Reference No. MMC/T.20/1 Vol.XIV/25, dated 31 March 1994. Source: Moshi Municipal Council.
303. Minute 4/94 of the land allocation committee meeting held on 18 April 1994. Source: Regional Land Development Office.
304. Letter, Reference No. MMC/LD/T.1/Vol.1/50, dated 11 May 1994. Source: Moshi Municipal Council.
305. Letter, Reference No. MM/KL.1/Tp.4/II/21, dated 12 May 1994. Source: Regional Town Planning Office.
306. Letter, Reference No. TP/R/4/IV/148, dated 1 June 1994. Source: Moshi Municipal Council.
307. Letter, Reference No. TP/R/4/IV/158, dated 29 July 1994. Source: Moshi Municipal Council.
308. Minutes of meeting held in the office of the director of urban development on 30 August 1994. Source: Urban Development Directorate.
309. Letter, Reference No. KLD/JJJ/V/76/85, dated 29 September 1994.
310. Quoted in Taylor, N., Review of Ethical Land Use: Principles of Policy and Planning. Timothy Beatley, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995, p. 221.
311. McAuslan, P., The Role of Law in Urban Planning. In Devas, N. and Rakodi, C. (eds.), Managing Fast Growing Cities in Developing Countries, New Approaches to Urban Planning and Management in Developing World. 1993, pp. 241 and 246.
312. Letter from the Msaranga residents' committee dated 26 July 1991.
313. Letter from the residents' committee to the minister for home affairs dated 26 July 1991. Source: Msaranga Residents' Committee archive.
314. Letter from the Msaranga chairman to the minister for home affairs dated 14 August 1991.
315. Court proceedings, 29 August 1991.
316. Letter, Reference No. TLC/A/16/MTC/11, dated 2 September 1991, written by counsel for the defence to the Moshi municipal director.
317. Letter, Reference No. TP/01/25/251, dated 25 September 1991.
318. Letter, Reference No. KL/C/140/0/224, dated 18 December 1991.
319. Interview with Peniel Macha, former chairman of Msaranga.
320. Court proceedings, 17 September 1992.
321. Court proceedings, 28 September 1992.
322. Court proceedings, 18 October 1992.
323. Court proceedings, 28 October 1992.
324. Court proceedings, January 1993.
325. Letter from Dr Kiwelu, dated 27 January 1993.
326. Minutes of regional land allocation committee meeting held on 28 April 1993.
327. Court proceedings, 30 April 1993.
328. Court proceedings, 20 May 1993.
329. Statement of defence filed by counsel for the defence on 13 August 1993.
330. Court proceedings, 25 August 1993.
331. Court proceedings, 14 September 1995.
332. Court proceedings, 26 October 1995.
333. Minutes of regional land allocation committee meeting held on 28 April 1993.
334. Written submission by counsel for the defence in reply to the submission of the counsel for the plaintiffs.
335. Court proceedings, 13 January, 4 February, 18 March, 14 June and 14 July 1994.
336. Interview with Peniel Macha, former chairman of Msaranga.
337. Interview with Mrema, J.
338. Interview with Dr Shao.
339. Letter, Reference of November 1994.
340. Judgement delivered by the District Resident Magistrate in Moshi on 11 November 1994.
341. Decree issued by Senior Resident Magistrate, in respect of Civil Case No. 56/1993, Msaranga, Kikarara and Mdawi village councils versus Moshi municipal council, dated 22 December 1994.
342. Interview with Kiwelu, D.
343. Interview with Maro, J.
344. Letter, Reference No. MMC/J.10/1, dated 2 December 1994.
345. Judgement on an application for a stay of execution delivered by the District Magistrate's court at Moshi on 14 July 1995.
346. Minute two and six to the director of urban development on 5 November 1992 and 6 November 1992, respectively.
347. Discussion with the head of the planning department, 17 September 1996.
348. Proceedings of a one day workshop on the preparation of Moshi Sustainable Project, 28 March 1996. This workshop was organized by consultants from the Centre for Human Settlements, Ardhi Institute, p. 11.
349. Kobia, S., The Quest for Democracy in Africa. National Council of Churches of Kenya, Nairobi, p. 3.
350. Flyvbjerg, B., Empowering Civil Society: Habermas, Foucault and the Question of Conflict. Paper for a symposium in celebration of John Friedmann, University of California, Los Angels, 11-13 April 1996, p. 18.
351. McAuslan, P., The Role of Law in Urban Planning. In Devas, N. and Rakodi, C. (eds.), Managing fast Growing Cities in Developing Countries, New Approaches to Urban Planning and Management in Developing World. Longman Scientific & Technical, UK, 1993, p. 241.
352. UNCHS (Habitat) and UNEP, The SCP Process Activities; A Snapshot of What They Are and How They Are Implemented. SCP Source Book Series, 1999.
353. UNCHS (Habitat) and UNEP, Preparing the SCP Environmental Profile, SCP Source Book Series, Volume 1, 1999.
354. UNCHS (Habitat) and UNEP, Organizing, Conducting and Reporting an SCP City Consultation. SCP Source Book Series, Volume 2, 1999.
355. UNCHS (Habitat) and UNEP, Formulating Issue Specific Strategies and Action Plans. SCP Source Book Series, Volume 4, 1999.
356. UNCHS (Habitat) and UNEP, Establishing and Supporting a Working Group Process. SCP Source Book Series, Volume 3, 1999.
357. Kitilla, M.L.D., Preparation of Strategic Urban Development Plan for Dar es Salaam City. 2003.
358. Forester, J., Critical Theory and Planning Practice, in Critical Theory and Public Life. The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England, 1984.
359. Healey, P., Planning Through Debate: The Communicative Turn in Planning Theory. In Fischer, F. and Forester, J. (eds.), The Argumentative Turn in Policy Analysis and Planning. UCL Press, 1993.
360. Watson, V., The Usefulness of Normative Planning Theories, in Planning Theory. Volume 1, No. 1, Sage Publications, 2002.
361. John, B.M. and Barbra, C.C., Leadership for the Common Good, Tackling Public Problems in a Shared Power World. Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco, 1992.
362. UN-Habitat, Good Urban Governance: A Normative Framework, Summary for the Preparatory Committee for the Special Session of the General Assembly for an Overall Review and Appraisal of the Implementation of the Habitat Agenda, Nairobi, 2001.
363. Flyvbjerg, B., Empowering Civil Society: Habermas, Foucault and the Question of Conflict. Paper for symposium in celebration of John Friedmann, University of California, Los Angeles, 1996.
364. In a paper titled "Problems of Moshi Municipality and the Master Plan's Failure to Address Them" presented to the workshop by the municipal planner, it is acknowledged that the exclusion of stakeholders in the planning process had contributed to the failure to guide and manage development in the urban fringe where land is occupied under the customary land tenure.
365. Masembejo, L., Environmental Planning and Management in Moshi Municipality 1996-2003
366. Interviews with Miembeni sub-ward chairman; municipal planner and surveyor.
367. Foucault, M., Colloqui con Foucault (Salerno, 1991), quoted from Flyvbjerg, B, Empowering Civil Society: Habermas, Foucault and the Question of Conflict. Paper for a symposium in celebration of John Friedmann, University of California, Los Angeles, 1996, p. 15.
368. Platt, J., Cases of Cases . . . of Cases, in What Is a case? In Ragin, C. and Becker, H. (eds.), Cambridge University Press, 1992, p. 48.
369. Flyvbjerg, B., Science of the Concrete: A Science of the Context, the Particular and Narrative. Draft (3.0), Chapter 2:7, 1995, p. 8.
370. Foucault, M., The History of Sexuality. Volume 1, p. 93, quoted in Flyvbjerg, B., Science of the Concrete: A Science of the Context, the Particular and Narrative. Draft (3.0), Chapter 2:7, 1995, p. 10.
371. Kobia, S., The Quest for Democracy in Africa. National Council of Churches of Kenya, Nairobi. p. 3.
372. Healey, P.P., Planning Through Debate: The Communicative Turn in Planning Theory. In Fischer, F. and Forester, J. (eds.), The Argumentative Turn in Policy Analysis and Planning. UCL Press, 1993, p. 234.
373. Fyvbjerg, B., Rationality and Power, Democracy in Practice. The University of Chicago Press, 1998.
374. See North, D., Quoted in Putnum, R., Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Italy. Princeton University Press, 1993, p. 165.
375. Kironde, L., The Evolution of the Dar es Salaam Land-Use Structure 1890-1990: A Study in the Effects of Land Policy. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Nairobi, 1995, Chapter 10, pp. 3-4.
376. Unlike the Land Ordinance Cap. 113 of 1923, the Land Act No. 4 of 1999 recognizes that land has exchange value. Thus in case of displacement of land rights the holder is entitled to full and fair compensation. This official recognition of land value presents a changed and more fair and just context for planning.
377. A recent planning study of Makongo informal settlement in Dar es Salaam by Marco Burra shows a resistance mounted by residents of the area against implementation of a layout plan prepared by the Ministry of Lands, Housing and Settlements Development in the 1990s. The plan disregarded individual land rights and residents were not involved in the planning of their settlement. See Marco Burra (2005) Community Initiatives in Settlement Planning and Management, Case of Makongo in Dar es Salaam.
378. Nnkya, T. Planning Practice in 12 Towns in Tanzania: Preliminary Findings, Working paper No 1, Department of Human Settlements, Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts, Copenhagen, 1993
379. United Republic of Tanzania, Land Ordinance Cap. 113.
380. United Republic of Tanzania, Town and Country Planning Ordinance Cap. 378.
381. United Republic of Tanzania, Report of the Presidential Commission of Inquiry into Land Matters. Ministry of Lands, Housing and Urban Development, 1992, p. 71.
382. Quoted in Fimbo, M., Planned Development versus Customary Law in Tanzania. Paper presented to a regional conference on Urbanization strategies for the SADCC countries, organized by the Tanzania Planners Association and the Commonwealth Association of Planners, 1988.
383. See also Kombe, W.J., Formal and Informal Land Management in Tanzania, the Case of Dar es Salaam City. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Dortmund, 1995, p. 76. According to Kombe, Nyagwasa had bought land from a third party in Mbezi area in Dar es Salaam. After the area had been declared a planning area without third-party interests on the land having been cleared, Nyirabu was granted a certificate of occupancy over the same parcel of land which was held by Nyagwasa. The latter filed a law suit against Nyirabu.
384. United Republic of Tanzania, Town and Country Planning Ordinance Cap. 378, Section 45.
385. Machiavelli, The Prince, Chapter 15, p. 91, quoted in Fyvbjerg, Rationality and Power, Planning and Democracy in Practice, 1996, Chapter 23, p. 182.
386. North, D.C. Quoted in Putnum, R., Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Italy. Princeton University Press, 1993, p. 165.
387. Extract from a speech made by the President of the United Republic of Tanzania, Benjamin William Mkapa, at the official inauguration of the physical development and rehabilitation of the Ardhi Institute, Dar es Salaam, on 8 March 1996.
388. Friedmann, J., Planning in the Public Domain: From Knowledge to Action. Princeton University Press, 1987.
389. Healey, P., Planning through Debate: The Communicative Turn in Planning Theory, Town-Planning Review, Volume 63, No. 2, 1992.
390. Saunders, P., Urban Politics: A Sociological Interpretation. Hutchinson University Library, 1983, p. 153.
391. McAuslan, P., The Role of Law in Urban Planning. In Devas, N. and Rakodi, C. (eds.), Managing Fast-Growing Cities: New Approaches to Urban Planning and Management in the Developing World. Longman Scientific and Technical Publishers, 1993, p. 240.
392. McAuslan, P., Institutional/Legal Options for Administration of Land Development. Nairobi, UNCHS-Habitat, 1991, p. 71.
393. Hans Christian Andersen, 80 Fairy Tales, Skandinavisk Bogforlag, Flensteds Forlag, Denmark, 1976, pp. 64-68.
394. Forester, J., Planning in the Face of Power, University of California Press, Ltd., London, England, 1989, p. 29.
395. Weaver, C., Jessop, J. and Das, V., Rationality in the Public Interest: Notes Toward a New Synthesis. In Breheny, M. and Hooper, A. (eds.), Rationality in Planning, 1985. The authors define positive knowledge as information acquired about the environment based on deductive reasoning, empirical observation and experimentation.
396. Alexander, E.R., The Non-Euclidean Mode of Planning: What Is It to Be? American Planners Association Journal. 1994. pp. 1-2.
397. Baum, S.H., Practising Planning Theory in a Political World. Urban Studies and Planning Programme, University of Maryland.
398. Healey, P., Development plans: New Approaches to Making Frameworks for Land Use Regulation. Journal of European Planning Studies, 1994.
399. See Baum, S.H., Practicing planning theory in a political World. Urban Studies and Planning Program, University of Maryland, pp. 1-5 (undated).
400. Interview with Msaranga Village Chairman 41 Friedmann, J., Planning in the public domain: From knowledge to action. Princeton University Press, 1987.
401. Flyvbjerg, B., Empowering Civil Society: Habermas, Foucault and the Question of Conflict. Paper for a symposium in celebration of Friedmann, J., University of California, Los Angeles, 11-13 April 1996, p. 18.
402. Tocqueville quoted in Putnum, R., Making Democracy Work: Civic traditions in Modern Italy. Princeton University Press, New Jersey, 1993, p. 182.
403. See Putnum, R., Making Democracy Work: Civic traditions in Modern Italy. Princeton University Press, New Jersey, 1993, p. 182.